Pharmaceutical Biology 2 - glossary (copy)

acid hydrolases

variety of hydrolytic enzymes that break down macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides. These enzymes are active only in the lysosome’s acidic interior.

acrocentric chromosome

the centromere is in a terminal position, so the short arm is very short

activator

protein that increases transcription of a gene or set of genes

active immunotherapy

Uses the patient’s own immune system/immune cells to eliminate the tumor cells

active transport

Movement of a molecule across a membrane or other barrier driven by energy.

adaptor protein, adaptor

A protein that functions solely to link two or more different proteins together in an intracellular signalling pathway or protein complex.

adenoviruses

cause very mild disease in humans, so they are considered safe. Adenoviruses do not integrate into the genome, but provide higher expression of the introduced genes, making them a favoured tool for human gene therapies.

adenylyl cyclase

an enzyme producing cAMP

adhesion

binding to something

agonist

activating molecule

AGS, Activators of G-protein Signaling

promote GDP/GTP exchange to activate G-proteins without the action of GPCRs

AKAP

protein kinase A anchoring protein

allele

a variation of a gene located at a particular locus on a chromosome

allosome

sex chromosome, X or Y

allosteric effect

the molecule binds elsewhere, not on the ligand binding site, on the receptor and causes a conformational change

alternative RNA splicing

Production of different RNAs from the same gene by splicing the transcript in different ways.

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

an enzyme that binds an activated amino acid to the corresponding tRNA

amphiphilic

Having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

amplification

mechanism leading to multiple copies of a DNA segment

anaphase

a phase of cell division, in which two parallel processes take place. The sister chromatids separate, and the shortening microtubules pull apart. The centrosomes move further away from the poles, the interpolar microtubules elongate and the astral microtubules shorten.

aneuploidy

difference in chromosome number compared to normal

angiogenesis

formation of new blood vessels

annealing

complementary sequences of single-stranded DNA or RNA to pair by hydrogen bonds to form a double-stranded polynucleotide

anterograde transport

forward transport, terminal half of the axon

anti-apoptotic

inhibitor of apoptosis

antibiosis

a biological interaction between two or more micro-organisms that is unfavourable to at least one of the parties; usually produced by the metabolism of an organism

antibiotics

metabolites of fungi or bacteria that inhibit or kill bacterial growth

antibody

Protein secreted by activated B cells in response to a pathogen or foreign molecule for inactivating it or marking it for destruction.

anticodon

A nucleotide triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that base-pairs with a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.

antiparallel

in the opposite direction

apoptosis

A form of programmed cell death mediated by enzymes called caspases.

apoptosome

the 'wheel of death', in intrinsic apoptosis, a protein complex of 7 molecules Apaf-1, cytochrome C, and procaspase 9 that initiates the caspase cascade.

arrestins

proteins that promote the internalization of the receptor from the cell surface and activate phosphodiesterases for destructing cyclic second messengers

autocrine signaling

signals are produced by a cell population and regulate the same population of cells

autophagosome

the non-functioning cellular component is surrounded by a double membrane

autophagy

breakdown of non-functioning cellular components and recycling of their materials

autophosphorylation

phosphorylation on the receptor by the catalytic site of the same receptor

autosomal dominant diseases

heterozygotes are also affected (patients), i.e. even a single mutant allele leads to symptomatic manifestations.

autosomal recessive diseases

only homozygotes will be affected, two mutant alleles are required for symptomatic onset.

autosome

body chromosome

axonal transport

transport of material in neurons

bactericidal agents

compounds that kills bacteria

bacteriostatic agents

compounds that inhibit the growth of bacteria

Barr body

an inactivated chromatin cluster in chromosome X

basal body

the site of formation of outer microtubules in the ciliary body and the whip

base

The purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA are organic nitrogenous bases.

binding site

Region on the surface of one molecule that can interact with another molecule through noncovalent bonding.

BMP

bone morphogenetic proteins

calmodulin

multipurpose intracellular Ca2+ receptor without enzymatic activity

CaM-Kinases

Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases

capsid

viral capsid, made up of protein, all virion process capsid

cargo

The membrane components and soluble molecules carried by transport vesicles.

carrier

An individual who has one copy of a recessive allele that causes disease/trait in the homozygous condition.

caspase

an enzyme with protease activity, cleaves intracellular proteins such as procaspases.

cDNA

complementary DNA, the product of synthesis from RNA by reverse transcriptase

cell bank

cell banks are used to store cell strains and cell lines in a special cryoprotective medium, liquid nitrogen.

cell cycle (cell-division cycle)

Reproductive cycle of a cell, the orderly sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its chromosomes and, usually, the other cell contents, and divides into two.

cell line

a genetically homogeneous mass of immortalised dividing cells. They are derived from tumour tissue, hybridomas or adenoviruses. Due to the telomerase activity of the cells, cell lines are capable of an infinite number of divisions.

cell strains

they are created by the repeated passage of primary cells. Such cultures have a finite lifespan (40-50 passages).

cell wall synthesis inhibitors

act on dividing cells, inhibiting the cell wall during division

cell

Life’s fundamental unit of structure and function; the smallest unit of organisation that can perform all activities required for life.

centriole

centrosome constituent, part of the dividing spindle

centromere

the insertion in the central part of the chromosome where the strands are attached

centrosome

centre of the cell

Chargaff's rule

in DNA, the number of adenines equals the number of thymines, and the number of guanines equals the number of cytosines, but the combined number of adenines and thymines is not equal to the combined number of guanines and cytosines

checkpoint

A control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.

chemotherapeutic agents/chemotherapeutics

chemically synthesised antibiotics

chiasma

point of attachment between homologous chromosomes

cholesterol

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones.

chromatid

a part of the chromosome connected by a centromere and having two identical nucleic acid sequences

chromatin

Complex of DNA, histones, and non-histone proteins found in the chromosomes in the nucleus.

chromosome nondisjunction

during mitosis, sister chromatids do not separate, leading to aneuploidy.

chromosome

the genetic information carrier, a genetic unit made up of chromatin strands of DNA and protein, containing genes, regulatory regions, and structural elements

cis face

Face on the same or near side.

cloning

get the target DNA sequence in the cells

cloning

using specialized DNA technology to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other segment of DNA to obtain enough material for further study

cluster

Group

codon

Sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA or mRNA molecule.

coenzyme

An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in metabolic reactions.

cofactor

Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely and reversibly, along with the substrate, during catalysis.

cohesion complex

Complex of proteins that holds sister chromatids together along their length before their separation.

compartmentalization

the eukaryotic cell is divided into different compartments using membrane-bounded organelles and internal membranes

competent cells

Bacterial cells that can take up DNA from the environment

competitive

competes with the original ligand

compound heterozygote

If both alleles are mutated but the two mutations are different, the individual is called a compound heterozygote.

concordant

identical

condensation

the winding up of DNA into a chromosome

conditionally active

activation is required for it to work

conformation

shape; form; structure

consensus sequence

the calculated sequence of most frequent residues, either nucleotide or amino acid, found at each position in a sequence alignment

conserved

saved (for long time)

constitutive heterochromatin

the inactive part of heterochromatin, i.e. condensed chromatin, which never relaxes and is never expressed

constitutive secretion

continuous release

constitutive

continuous

convergence

different receptors activate the same intracellular signaling molecule

core (viral)

nucleic acid core

covalent bond

Stable chemical link between two atoms produced by sharing one or more pairs of electrons.

crista (plural cristae)

A specialized invagination of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

crossing over

a crossing between non-brotherly chromatids, a site of genetic recombination

cross-resistance

in some cases, a mutation or trait in the bacterium that protects against several types of antibiotics at the same time