PLNT_SCI 2195 Mizzou

Who were the earliest immigrants to Missouri? Give an example.

German immigrants.

Gottfried Dunden came in 1824 and inspired Michael Poeschel ________and he founded stone hill winery.

What is Missouri's state grape? What do we know about its parentage, and how do we know this?

Missouri state grape is a Norton

What major pest decimated European vineyards, and where did it come from? What role did Missouri play in saving the French wine industry?

Phylloxera

World's fair, the french began importing Missouri rootstocks:

-----Problem: also imported native Missouri pest that went on to decimate French Vineyards.

Hermann Jaeger gathered and shipped 17 boxcars to France.

How did prohibition shape winemaking in the United States?

At the start of 1920, Missouri boated over 100 wineries

Even though amendment 18 was repealed in 1933, the Missouri win industry did not begin to return until the 1960's.

Missouri finally allowed the issue of domestic winemaking licenses, for up to 5,000 gallons in 1943c

St. Louis doctor Axel arneson planted hybrid grapes in 1951; would later become Peaceful Bend Winery in Steelville

How do ancient grape fossils help us to understand how Earth is put together?

Grapes are teaching us about the evolution of ancient plants and how our planet is put together.

----Ancient grape fossils are in west India.

Ancient grape fossil were a member of this family (named for its most famous member; Vitis or grapevine

Once India ran into Europe/Asia, our ancient grape ancestors were good competitors and established themselves across the continent.

How did the ice age impact the native ancestral varieties of grapes we grow today?

The ice age selected for grape varieties that could survive the cold. Resulted in a genetic bottleneck event. So all of the vines that are growing today are descended from those early scrappy ancestors that could withstand the cold.

Explain the evolution of plant taxonomy, being sure to include the different systems and how they differ from each other.

The scientific study of biological diversity and its evolutionary history is called systematics.

The goal of systematics is to discover all the branches of the phylogenetic tree of life.

The branch of systematics involving identifying, naming, and classifying species is called taxonomy.

--------At latin institutions, individuals used descriptive phrase names for a plant

--------All organisms were grouped

--------An excellent first attempt at organization

What sort of information can you get from a phylogenetic tree? How are these puttogether? What sorts of questions can you answer using these?

Kinda an opinion

Can be made at any scale and convey enormous amounts of information.

Phylogeny: differences and similarities between/among organisms are seen as products of their evolutionary history.

What do we know about the domestication of grapevines, and how do we know it?

Native grapes living in Missouri woodlands today are descendants of these ancient grapes that have been shaped for millions of years by what birds thought was delicious.

Ancient grapes were dioecious; having different male plants and female plants.

How is the advancement of DNA sequencing technology a game-changer for the field of evolutionary biology?

We can reconstruct past speciation events by examining the DNA sequence from ancient samples and plants living now to understand how today's cultivators are related to each other.

Explain how bird feeding preference drove the physical characteristics of wild grapeclusters.

Birds prefer loose clusters with darkly-pigmented berries. They ate these over other choices, long before humans were selecting one plant over another. So our native and ancestor varieties look more like what birds like.

Explain the major difference in reproductive strategy between wild grape varieties and domesticated ones. How did this happen? What implications does this have ongrape clusters from each different type?

Native varieties are dioecious: there are male vines and female vines, and in order to get grapes, you need pollen to move from a male vine to a female vine, via a pollinator. The varieties we cultivate for wine today are monoecious: their flowers have both male and female parts, so the pollen just needs to move from one part to another within one flower, not between vines. This was the result of a fortuitous mutation, and results in much larger and more fruitful clusters.

What is grapevine phenology? Give an example of a stage. How is climate change impacting this?

Evidence suggested harvest dates are shifting earlier each year.

A study in Australia showed harvest dates advanced 8 days per decade.

Analyzing harvest records from the last 64 years showed trends toward earlier grape harvest attributable to climate change.

Explain the role seeds play in grape formation and development when they have seeds.

Grapes with seeds:

Pollination (not fertilization) starts the process of ovary development, however fruit formation past this point depends on the development of at least one seed (four can fit inside); one seed must develop for grape formation

Brand new seeds are a source of the crucial plant hormone auxin, and subsequent fruit development upon auxin production.

What are the stages of berry development characterized by?

Berries undergo three distinct stages of development, characterized by a double sigmoid curve separated by a lag phase.

How do you know when it is time to harvest? What sorts of factors go into this decision?

Many factors are important for harvest date: variety, climate, crop level.

Berry maturation depends on heat units: expressed in growing degree days (GDDs) requirement significantly varies between varieties

Low temperature mean GDD accumulation is slow and ripening is delayed; converse is true also

There is an optimal leaf-area to fruit-weight ratio for each variety, ex,

The most commonly known grape varieties are of the species Vitis vinifera. What are some other species that are cultivated either as rootstocks or as hybrids? What sorts of qualities are desired from these species?

We talked at length about hybrids and how they are created from crossing a variety from the species Vitis vinifera with a variety from another species, one of these native and ancestor species. Hybrids are created to blend the high fruit quality of the Vitis vinifera species with the hardiness and scrappiness of the native and ancestor vines, that have been surviving for thousands of years without us.

Explain the concept of canopy management. What is the ultimate goal? What sortsof actives do growers use to push vines towards balance?

Canopy management is pruning/leaf removal/fruit dropping/shoot positioning to make the leaves and growing parts of the vine better for both growing and for management efficiency. Our goal is to grow balanced vines where we are not wasting resources. Growers use the above strategies to push their vines towards balance

Describe the association between grapevine roots and arbuscular mycorrhiza lfungi. What does each player get out of this association?

Mycorrhizal association:

----Fungus gets carbon from the mother plant, plant gets enhanced nutrient uptake.

----Vines associated with mycorrhizae have been shown to:

-------------Have improved root and shoot growth

-------------Have higher issue concentrations of phosphors

-------------Improved water relations.

How does water move through plants? In your description, be sure to include watertransport pathways through the plant body, how stomata work, and the role oftranspiration.

Root pressure also rehydrates formant buds:

-----Water content rises from 40% to 80% during bud swell phase

Buds water content decreases from 80%-50% (buds enter winter dormancy).

How do grapevines keep time? Why is this crucial in their survival?

Grapevine exhibit a discontinuous growth cycle with alternating periods of active growth (march and october) and dormancy (november to february).

What is grapevine bleeding? Why does this happen and how does it benefit thevine? What does this tell us about the status of the vine?

Grapevine bleeding:

Late winter/early spring, grapevines exude xylem sap from un-suberized wounds

Marks transition from dormant to active in the roots

Related to the restoration of metabolic activity in the roots

Maximum rate of bleeding occurs a few days before bud break.

Explain the concept of growing degree days. Why do growers use these when deciding what variety to grow at a given site? How are these calculated?

Growing degree days:

Measured in thermal time or heat units

Grape growing regions can be classified into distinct growing zones by their GDD standard for the growing season;

alternatively varieties have characteristics growing degree requirements:

----GDD = (T max + T min) / 2 - T base

----Average of the daily maximum and minimum temperature minus the base temperature.

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. CLIMATE:

Cold acclimation:

Tissues and organs differ in their freezing tolerance

Growing parts of the plant are the most sensitive (have the highest water content)

Cold hardiness is low throughout the growing season, increasing during late summer and reaching a maximum during the peak of winter

Initiated by decreasing day length followed by cool night temperatures.

Why is soil drainage so crucial for vineyards? Explain how soil type and topographycan affect this. How could a grower improve the drainage of a site before plantingvines?

Prevent erosion

Use land area efficiently

Optimize wince performance

Facilitate

Visual aesthetics

Other money making enterprise

Cost of infrastructure

Landscape constraints

Management efficiency

Describe winemaking in ancient Egypt. What role did wine play in culture, and howis this reflected in the evidence we have from ancient Egyptians?

The first pharaohs of Egypt imported wine from the Levant

------Later, they started making it themselves:

-------------3000 BC in the Nile Delta, a royal winemaking industry was established.

How did wine fit into the lives of the ancient Greeks? How did the development of pottery push winemaking forward? What are Appellations of Origin, and how didusing these set the foundations for modern winemaking?

Wine was included in burials as:

-------Sustenance for the deceased

--------Funerary offerings to the spirit of the dead, Ka.

----------Krater: bowel used to dilute wine with water at symposia

What do we know about winemaking in ancient Rome? What are dolias, and wasancient Roman wine any good?

Dolias: Earthenware fermentors buried in the ground the depth of an arm's length

Romans knew how to make quality wine

--------Evidence that it kept for long periods of time

People were drinking Rome's famous opimius from the vintage 121 BC when it was 125 years old.

How did the church during the Middle Ages impact winemaking today?

The middle ages:

--------Roman empire fell in 476 AD

--------Dark ages - 600-1400 AD

----------------Period with frequent warfare, scarcity, and cultural and economic deterioration

-----------Marked by insecurity and fear

The church became the repository for winemaking skills

How did pasteurization and refrigeration revolutionize winemaking in the 20thcentury?

Pasteurization: process of heating liquid (or food) to kill pathogenic bacteria and make food safe to eat.

What was the Judgement of Paris? What did this do for American winemaking?

The big shift that made California serious happened in 1975 and it was the judgment of Paris.

---------Fool the French

How does maceration differ between red and white wines? What sorts of factors impact this?

Reds:

Duration can be as long or longer then fermentation in red wines

Rose:

Short for rose wines

White:

Virtually nonexistent

Pectinate preparation added immediately after crushing (speeds up tissue disintegration).

Outline the major steps during the winemaking process. How do these steps differbetween red and white wine production?

How red wine is made:

Grow grapes and harvest

Alcoholic fermentation

15% press wine 85% free run wine (get rid of skins)

Amphora, inox, oak, concrete.

Aging process.

Explain why acidity is so important to wines, both pre- and post-fermentation, and in the finished wine.

Reduction in acid content is second most marked chemical change (behind sugar accumulation)

Major acids are tartaric and malic acids

Acidity is important to produce clean, fresh-tasting, color stability, and crucial for aging and protection from microbial spoilage.

How can the addition of purified enzymes help during winemaking?

Enzyme preparations may be added to help with the wine clarification, filtration, and dealcoholization, to enhance flavor development, or to augment anthocyanin liberation.

Juice extraction can be enhanced by addition of pectolytic enzymes immediately following crushing.

What is the cap? What impact does the formation of the cap have to do withmaking a wine?

During red wine fermentation, the carbon dioxide is released during yeast metabolism becomes trapped in the pomace causing it to rise to the top forming a cap:

Modern fermenters designed to resolve this problem

Cap Management: techniques to incorporate the cap into the fermenting juice.

Explain the similarities and differences between standard batch fermentation,continuous fermentation, and cell-recycle-batch fermentations. What are some prosof using each type, and what are the drawbacks?

Cell-cycle-batch Fermentation:

----After each fermentation, yeasts are collected and used to initiate subsequent fermentations

----------Collection may involve:

--------------------Filtration

--------------------Centrifugation

--------------------Spontaneous sedimentation

-----------Reduces inoculation costs

-----------Fermentation time is shortened

-----------Efficiency of sugar conversion to ethanol is improved.

What is the difference between spontaneous and induced fermentation? What sorts of wines are made with each?

Winemakers have the decision to add commercial yeast to the fermentation or allow wild native endemic yeast to carry out the fermentation.

Choice of yeast strain affects varitel character by influencing the liberation or synthesis of specific grape flavorings

Spontaneous fermentations can enhance yearly variations in flavor and allow for vintage uniqueness (terrier)

What is malolactic fermentation? When does this happen, and what is convertedinto what? What organism is responsible? What qualities does this impart on wine?Is this desirable or not?

Another major player in fermentation: Oenococcus Oeni (malolactic fermentation).

What is terroir? What sorts of components/characteristics go into this?

What are the five major characteristics that we evaluate in a wine? What factors contribute to each of these characteristics?

Sweetness: At the same level of sweetness, wines with lower acidity taste sweeter than wines with higher acidity

Acidity: Wines range from PH 2.5 t o4.5

Tannin: Tannins are naturally occurring polyphenols found in plants (back tea has a lot)

Alcohol: Plays a huge role in wine aromas, Range from below 10% to over 15%

Body: Previous four characteristics affect how light or how bold a wine will taste

Give some examples of wine laws in France. What factors are regulated in French AOC wine?

Few restrictions, except, at least 85% of thegrapes must come entirely from within theboundaries of one of the delimited vin de paysregions

How did sparkling wine come to be (e.g. how was it discovered)? How did the technological advancements of the time and unique climatological circumstances contribute to its inception?

AOC - the top level of the classification pyramid. Sometimes shortened to AC. It has strict regulations tobe sure the French name means something. Over 300AOC so

Place of Origin - each area is precisely defined

Grapes - each has permissible grape varieties allowed

Yield - the maximum tonnage is set

Vineyard practices - how and when the vines can be pruned, trellised, row spacing, number of vines per hectare, earliest date for harvest, use of irrigation or not

Alcohol - minimum or maximum alcohol, sugar, oracidity levels in the finished wine. All AOC wineshave a minimum level of alcohol

Winemaking practices - regulates techniques that are required or prohibited, such as chaptalization, aging requirements (in some cases)

Taste - wine must contain typical flavor and aroma profiles of that region; all AOC wines are analyzed for taste, those that fail are declassified.

Describe the major steps in traditional sparkling wine production. Then, describe how the other methods we covered in class are different from these steps.

Harvest:

Most sparkling winesare white, but can bemade from red orwhite grapes (Blancdu blanc, Blanc dunoir)

• Hand-harvesting is employed where financials permit

• Grapes harvested earlier than for table wine for increased acidity and lower pH

Process:

Cuvvee: Blending

Tirage: 24g sucrose is added

Aging: lasts from 9 months to 5 years

Riddling: bottles are rotated

Dosage: some RS is added back into the wine

Why is blending so crucial to the production of sparkling wines? How canwinemakers use this to their advantage?

Blending evens outvariation in vintage,variety, and quality

• Blending can disrupttartrate equilibrium;additional coldstabilization necessaryto reestablish stabilit

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. SOILS:

Soils:

-----Bedrock age on geological time scale

------24,000 different types of soil in Missouri.

-------Clay loam is the ideal soil type for vineyards.

--------------Combine field operations.

-------Ideal soil:

-------------Internal water drainage

----------------------Drain tiles

-------------Organic matter

----------------------Nitrogen

--------------Texture

--------------Soil PH

----------------------5.5-6.5 optimal

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. WATER:

Typical vines require 25-35 inches of rainfall per year.

Can be used as a tool to strategically stress veins to increase fruit quality.

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. TOPOGRAPHY:

More on mesoclimate:

-----Elevation: Absolute (warm belts) and relative (to surrounding topography).

--------Slope: The inclination or declination that varies from the horizontal and is measured as a percentage of elevation change.

--------Aspect: the prevailing compass direction which the slope faces.

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. CROP HAZARDS

Deer and birds.

Describe the major considerations growers must take into account when choosing a vineyard site. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:

Climate trumps soil

-----Choose correct variety for the site

------Soil supports (but can limit) production

-----------------Good drainage is essential

-------Topography is important to climate

-----------------Avoid valleys and depressions

Proximity to wineries (transportation of grapes).

Where did the immigrants come from , why, and how did they influence early Missouri winemaking?

They came from Germany.

German settlers brought vine clippings from the old world

What do we know about Missouris state grape and how do we know this?

Named after Dr. Nathaniel Norton

Bland (vitis labrusca x Vitis vinifera hybrid)

Nortons virginia seedling (Norton)

Cross between:

Vitis aestivalis (native variety)

Efarine Noir (ancient variety)

First person to attempt to organize and classify plants early latin classifications

Theophrastus

Who is Linnaeus?

Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) simplified polynomial classification

---------------1753 created a book.

---------------Father of taxonomy

---------------Chief royal physician

How do scientists look at all the living organisms on the earth and how they relate to each other?

The phylogenic tree

Cultivated varieties are monoecious. What does this mean?

-----Mutation

-----Plants are hermaphroditic; develop with both male and female parts.

What do monoecious vanities look like?

------Bloom sequence of grape flower: (a): calypart attache (b) calyptra separating, and (c) open flower.

------Grapes start with a flower.

Ancient grapes were dioecious; having different male plants and female plants. What does this mean?

Female plants are female because a gene suppresses the development of male anatomy.

In order for reproduction and the formation of grapes, you need to have a male vine and a female vine in close proximity and a vehicle for pollen to travel between the plants.

What role do the seeds play for the development of seedless grapes?

Seedless grapes:

Parthenocarpy: (raisins)

----Berries develop without fertilization and lack seeds completely

Stenospremocarpy: (table grapes)

-----Berries contain at least one fertilization seed that is subsequently aborted, leaving a small soft, undeveloped seed trace.

They are vegetatively propagated

What does stage 1 of berry development look like?

Begins immediately after bloom

Grapes grow through cell division and cell enlargement

Berries are hard and green (they are full of chlorophyll and are photosynthesizing)

Low sugar content

Berries are accumulating organic acids

Stage lasts 6-9 weeks.

Final size of grape is determined by three factors:

Number of cells

Cell volume

Organic solute content (sugars).

What does stage 2 of berry development look like?

Berry growth slows dramatically during the second stage

Organic acid concentration reaches its maximum

Berries still firm but start to lose chlorophyll

Normally lasts 1-6 weeks

**Berries grow and expand at optimal temperatures : 68-77 degrees fahrenheit.

What does stage 3 of berry development look like?

Rapid berry growth resumes after the lag phase

Initiation of ripening at start of this phase (color development)

Berry softening (veraison) begins

Shift from photosynthetic to heterotrophic

Seeds inside turn from green to brown and became hard and desiccated

Organic acids decline/sugar accumulates

Lasts 6-8 weeks

Crop load heavily influences maturation time

They look at the diameter, volume, and the weight

Is there a time limit for the size the ripening of crop loads?

Large crop loads take more time to ripen

What is vegetative propagation?

New plants grow from parts of the parent plant (as opposed to starting plants from seed).

Both own rooted vines and grafted vines can be vegetatively propagated.

What is grafting?

Main idea: tightly join together the vasculature of the scion to that of the rootstock.

Grapevine roots are associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.

Is arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi beneficial to grapevines?

Widely accepted as beneficial to grapevines

Effectively increases the surface area of the root system

Fungus grows within the root itself; cannot grow in the absence of a root

What does root pressure do for formant buds?

Water content rises from 40% to 80% during bud swell phase

Compare and contrast the mesoclimate and the microclimate.

Macroclimate: the climate of a large region measured in many square miles.

Mesoclimate: the climate of the vineyard site affected by its local topography.

What is the length of a sites growing season have to be depending on the climate?

Significantly longer growing season in the bootheel. (160 days) and lower down is (205 days).

What is the optimal daytime temperature for grapevines?

BELOW 30 degrees c.

What are the heat stress temperatures for grapevines?

Heat stress is defined as 5 degrees c above optimal growing conditions.

What does excess heat do to the grapevines?

Excess heat causes vines to hunker down and cease metabolic activities.

Can also lead to leaf scorch

What is the major goal of growing grapes in Missouri?

have enough growing season before the first killing frost in order to ripen your fruit.

What are the expected minimum growing temperatures?

Average minimum temperatures vary greatly across the state.

When does declamation happen? (cold)

April

When does maximization hardiness happen? (cold)

January

When does acclimation happen? (cold)

December

When heat damage occurs, is there an effect on photosynthesis and respiration?

Yes, there is a drastic effect.

What was wine stored in?

amphoras:

------------------Sophisticated system for transport by ship

------------------Each city/ state had a unique style of amphora.

Why was the updated storage methods important to the development of wine making?

Because you could store and age wine better.

Amphoras as medium for artwork.

What role did monks have in the wine boom?

French monks planted vineyards containing different grape varieties.

Once they made the wine, they found the the ones they liked and took vine clippings and planted them in other sections near the churches.

How is white wine made?

Grow grapes and harvest

Press: extract juice from grapes

Settling: particles form sediment at the bottom of the tank

Alcoholic fermentation: sugar and yeast - alcohol + CO2

Maldlac sonversk

How is red wine made?

Grow grapes and harvest

Alcoholic fermentation

15% press wine 85% free run wine (get rid of skins)

Amphora, inox, oak, concrete.

Aging process.

What does maceration mean?

Refers to a period during which constituents diffuse out of the pomace (grape solids) into the juice.

What are ways to deal with the Cap?

Pump Over: More intensity

Punch down: Less intensity

Always done by hand

These happen during fermentation on average 3 times a day.

What does the cap restrict?

contact between pomace and the majority of the juice

What is continuous fermentation

-------Most industrial fermentations are continuous:

--------------Substrate is added at a relatively constant rate while equivalent volumes of ferment are removed.

------Operate for weeks or months

------Rarely used in smaller wineries.

What do different temperature ranges do for different flavors

Cooler temperatures: production of fruit esters

Warmer temperatures: development of varieties Fragrance.

How do white whites ferment?

White wine fermenters are usually of simple designs.

------Typical technical requirements:

----------------Minimize oxygen exposure

----------------Efficient temperature control

-------Different temperature ranges favor different flavor profiles:

How do winemakers establish the best fermentation options?

Using established strains provide winemakers the greatest confidence that fermentation will go quickly and to completion, and produce relatively predictable flavor and quality attributes.

Describe the Bordeaux growing region

Bordeaux is among the world's most famous wine regions.

➢Renowned for expensive red wines and luscious white dessert wines.

➢ Located in southwest France surrounding Bordeaux city.➢ Two rivers, the Garonne and the Dordogne, meet to formthe Gironde, a long river that flows into the AtlanticOcean. Waterways were partially responsible for Bordeaux's early success.

➢ Divided into three areas by these waterways.

▪ Left Bank - to the west of the Gironde and Garonne

▪ Right Bank - east and north of the Gironde and Dordogne

▪ Entre-Deux-Mers - lies between the Dordogne andGaronne

➢ Climate in Bordeaux is maritime. A huge pine forest tothe south and west, along with waters warmed by theGulf Stream, help shield the region from extremeweather.

White grapes: Sauvignon Blanc, Semillion, Muscadelle

Red Grapes: Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, malbec

Growing Regions: Medoc, graves, Libourne Area, Enter-deux-mers

Describe the burgundy growing regions

Another of the world's great wine regions.

❑ Located in east-central France; south ofChampagne, southwest of Alsace and eastof the Loire Valley

❑ Divided into four distinct vineyard areas.

▪ Chablis

▪ Côte d'Or✓ Côte de Nuits✓ Côte de Beaune

▪ Côte Chalonnaise

------Macconais

Burgundy has its own classification system for vineyards

----Grand Cru (great growth) - the top tier, each is granted an AOC of their own

▪ Premier Cru (first growth) - the nexttier, often referred to as "1er Cru"

Grape varieties: Chardonney, Aligote, Pinot Noir, Gamay

What is compaction?

Compaction:

--------------Primarily a concern in mechanized vineyards

--------------Compaction causes many other serious problems

--------------Best way to prevent compaction; avoid entering vineyards when conditions are wet.

--------------Combine field operations.

What characteristics does top soil need to have?

subsoil, parent material.

--------------Well drained

--------------Moderately well drained

--------------Somewhat poorly drained

--------------Poorly drained