psych final

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior

confirmation bias

the human tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that matches what we already believe, while ignoring or throwing away facts that do not fit

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after an event happens, that you could have predicted or foreseen the outcome

central route persuasion

uses logic, facts, and deep thinking for lasting attitude change

peripheral route persuasion

uses superficial cues, emotions, and mental shortcuts for quick, temporary shifts

outgroup homogeneity effect

outgroup (a group they do not belong to) as all alike, while seeing their own group (the ingroup) as varied and unique.

self fulfilling prophecy

Your thoughts change your actions, and those actions cause the predicted outcome to happen

schemas

concepts or frameworks that organize and interpret information

• mental maps

zygote

The term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception until the embryo stage, or the first 2 gestational weeks in humans.

• Differentiation into germ layers

embryo

The term used to describe a developing organism between the zygote and the fetus stages, or between gestational weeks 3 and 8 weeks in humans.

• Nervous system and organs form

• S3x organs differentiate

fetus

The term used to describe a developing organism between the embryo stage and birth, or between gestational weeks 8 and approximately 40 weeks in humans.

• Growth and maturation of existing organs

• REM sleep from seventh month of pregnancy

• Good hearing from seventh month of pregnancy

teratogen

A chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus.

sensorimotor stage (birth-age 2)

characterized by active exploration of the environment

• Here and now rather than past and future

• Exploration through moving and sensing

• Object permanence

preoperational stage (age 2-6)

characterized by use of symbols, egocentrism, and limits on the ability to reason logically

• language acquisition

• egocentrism

• illogical reasoning

concrete operational stage (age 7-11)

characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning

• logical reasoning

• mastery of conversation problems

• learning by doing

formal operational stage (age 12+)

characterized by mature reasoning capabilities

• abstract reasoning

• idealism

• improved problem solving

assimilation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema.

accommodation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema

object permanence

The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present.

conservation

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity.

egocentrism

Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people.

theory of the mind (TOM)

The understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one’s own

attachment

Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver.

secure attachment

A pattern of infant–caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance

insecure attachment

A pattern of infant–caregiver bonding that can take several forms but is generally characterized as less desirable for the child’s outcomes than secure attachment.

authoritative parenting style

high rules and high love

authoritarian parenting style

high rules and low love

indulgent/permissive parenting style

few rules and high love

uninvolved/neglectful parenting style

few rules and low love

adolescence

A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood.

puberty

A period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity

secondary sex characteristics

Physical changes occurring at puberty associated with sexual maturity.

preconventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to expectations of reward or punishment.

• Uses probability of rewards and punishments to guide behavior

conventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which moral choices are made according to law or public opinion.

• Maintains reputation and follows the law.

postconventional morality

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason.

• Follows self-chosen ethical principles.

stage 1 trust vs mistrust

birth to 18 months

• children view the world as a safe, dependable place

• Developing trust in caregivers leads to hope

stage 2 autonomy vs shame and doubt

18 months to 3 years

• children begin to explore

• Developing personal control leads to willpower

stage 3 initiative vs guilt

3-6 years

• children begin to act on the world

• Taking control of activities leads to purpose

stage 4 industry vs inferiority

6-12 years

• children develop self-confidence

• Coping with academic/social demands leads to confidence

stage 5 identity vs role confusion

adolescence (12-18 years)

• Teens begin to form an identity by asking “Who am I?” Failure to achieve a stable identity leads to role confusion and problems with subsequent stages

stage 6 intimacy vs isolation

18-40 years

• Young adults with clear identities form stable, intimate relationships, while others experience feelings of loneliness and isolation.

• Forming intimate relationships leads to love.

stage 7 generativity vs stagnation

40-65 years

• Midlife adults who find value in their lives, even if they have not met all their earlier goals, experience generativity. They are likely to “put back” energy into family, work, and community

• Creating a legacy leads to care.

stage 8 integrity vs despair

65+ years

• Toward the end of life, adults who feel that they have lived fully experience a sense of integrity and calm

• Reflecting on life leads to wisdom.

attribution

A judgment about the cause of a person’s behavior.

dispositional attribution

A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to personal qualities or characteristics.

situational attribution

A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to the environment.

correspondence bias

The tendency to view behavior as the result of disposition, even when the behavior can be explained by the situation in which it occurs.

• My friend flunked her exam because she’s not very bright.

actor-observer bias

Emphasizing dispositional attributions to explain the behavior of others while emphasizing situational attributions to explain our own behavior.

self-serving bias

Attributing success to dispositional factors while attributing failure to situational factors.

• I got an A on one test because I’m smart, but I flunked the other test because it was unfair.

just-world belief

The assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

• That homeless person doesn't try hard enough to get off the streets.

cognitive dissonance

The uncomfortable state that occurs when behavior and attitudes do not match and that can be resolved through attitude change.

cognitive consistency

A preference for holding congruent attitudes and beliefs.

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

a psychology theory created by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo in 1980, explains how people change their attitudes when they hear a persuasive message

• people process information through two main paths:
  - central route (deep, careful thinking)
  - peripheral route (relying on surface cues or quick shortcuts)

prejudice

an emotional attitude or feeling toward a group

stereotype

thoughts or beliefs about a group

discrimination

the outward behavior or unfair action taken against that group

compliance

Agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority.

obedience

Compliance with a request from an authority figure.

social facilitation

A situation in which the presence of other people changes performance.

social loafing

the tendency of people to put in less effort when they work in a group than when they work alone

deindividuation

a psychological state where people lose their personal identity and sense of responsibility in a group or crowd

group polarization

people in a group make decisions or form opinions that are more extreme than their original, individual thought

• intensifying of an attitude following discussion

groupthink

people in a group make bad choices because they want harmony and agreement more than truth

romantic love

+: intimacy, passion

-: commitment

companionate love

+: intimacy, commitment

-: passion

consummate love

+: intimacy, commitment, passion

-: nothing

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

consciousness

awareness of self and environment

self awareness

the special understanding of the self as distinct from other stimuli

sleep

a normal state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness of external stimuli

waking

a normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli

circadian rhythm

a natural internal 24 hour biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, and hormone levels

beta wave

A waveform of 15 to 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates alert 

• Definition: Fast waves seen when you are wide awake, alert, and focused on tasks.

• Sleep Stage: Found during REM sleep when the brain looks active like being awake

alpha wave

A waveform of 9 to 12 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates relaxed waking.

• Definition: Medium-speed waves that appear when you feel calm, relaxed, and close your eyes.

• Sleep Stage: Seen at the very start of Stage 1 NREM sleep as you drift down.

gamma wave

A waveform of more than 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that indicates attention to sensory input.

• Definition: High-speed waves for top mental focus, problem-solving, and peak insight.

• Sleep Stage: Active during REM sleep alongside mixed signals, but rare in deep rest.

delta wave

A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates deep non–rapid eye movement sleep

• Definition: Slowest and deepest waves tied to body healing and cell recovery.

• Sleep Stage: Dominates Stage 3 NREM sleep (slow-wave deep sleep)

theta wave

 A waveform of 4 to 7 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that is characteristic of lighter stages of non–rapid eye movement sleep.

• Definition: Slow waves linked to light sleep, deep daydreams, and early memory work.

• Sleep Stage: Dominates Stage 1 NREM sleep and early Stage 2 NREM sleep

REM sleep

• Brain Activity: High-frequency, desynchronized waves resembling wakefulness.

• Physical Signs: Rapid darting of the eyes under lids and temporary skeletal muscle paralysis (atonia).

• Psychological Function: Primary stage for vivid dreaming, emotional processing, and memory consolidation.

NREM sleep

a quiet and restful phase of sleep divided into three distinct stages (N1, N2, and N3) that account for roughly 75% to 80% of total adult sleep time

dreaming

a mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery

lucid dreaming

a conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream

sleep terror

It features sudden screaming, physical thrashing, and complete amnesia of the event the next morning.

• Sleep Stage: Originates during slow-wave non-REM (NREM) sleep, usually within the first few hours of the night.

• Physical Signs: Rapid heart rate, heavy sweating, flushed skin, and dilated pupils.

• Consciousness: The individual appears awake with eyes open but remains deeply asleep, confused, and immune to external comforting.

• Memory Recall: Little to no recollection of a scary dream or the event itself. [1, 2, 3, 4]

insomnia

a sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep

narcolepsy

excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden sleep attacks, and immediate entry into REM sleep

• Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS): Overwhelming daily drowsiness and sudden sleep attacks.

• Cataplexy: Sudden, brief muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions like laughter.

• Sleep paralysis: Temporary inability to move or speak when falling asleep or waking up.

• Hallucinations: Vivid, dream-like sights or sounds during sleep transitions. [1, 2, 3]

sleep apnea

a physiological sleep disorder characterized by obstructive, central, or complex breathing pauses

sudden infant death syndrome

a sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep

restless legs syndrome

a disorder characterized by the involuntary movement of an extremity, usually one leg

coma

• Status: Alive, in a profound state of deep unconsciousness.

• Function: Brain activity is present, but the person cannot be awakened.

• Signs: Eyes remain closed, does not respond to pain or commands, and usually lasts a few days or weeks before recovery, death, or transition to another state.

vegetative state

• Status: Alive, having emerged from unconsciousness without recovering awareness.

• Function: Higher brain (cortex) function is lost, but the brainstem works to regulate basic functions.

• Signs: Eyes may open, and the person shows sleep-wake cycles and involuntary grimaces or sounds, but lacks thought or purposeful movement.

brain death

• Status: Legally and medically dead; no recovery is possible.

• Function: Complete and permanent loss of all brain function, including the brainstem.

• Signs: Cannot breathe independently, has no reflexes, and requires artificial life support to keep organs functioning.

seizure

a sudden, abnormal burst of electrical activity in the brain that temporarily alters behavior, movement, feelings, or awareness

psychoactive drug

any drug with the capability of altering a person’s state of consciousness

stimulant

any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system

hallucinogen

a drug that stimulates the experience of false perceptions

opioids

a class of drugs that bind to specific receptors in the brain and body to block pain, slow down the nervous system, and produce strong feelings of pleasure (euphoria)

acts on Endogenous endorphins

hypnosis

a state of consciousness involving focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion

LSD

acts on serotonin

marijuana

acts on endogenous cannabinoids

caffeine

acts on adenosine

nicotine

acts on Acetylcholine