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Cultural Revolution
In 1966, Mao attempted to reinvigorate China's commitment to communism, an effort. In practice, it silenced critics of Mao and solidified his hold on power. Its impact on China was similar to the impact of Stalin's purges in the Soviet Union.
White Revolution
Despite his harsh rule, the shah instituted several progressive reforms and they came without bloodshed. They included recognizing women's right to vote, creating a social welfare system, and funding literacy programs in villages.
The most important reform dealt with land ownership. The shah wanted to undercut the power of traditional landowners and increase his popularity among peasants. Under his plan, the government bought land from landlords and resold it at a lower price to peasants. The program helped many peasants become first-time landowners, but it failed to reach a majority of peasants.
Many Iranians-both landowners who had been forced to sell their land and frustrated peasants who received nothing opposed the land reforms.
Religious conservatives opposed modernizing the country, particularly changing the relationship between men and women. Advocates for greater democracy opposed the shah's harsh rule.
Algerian War for Independence
began in 1954, and it involved many groups. Because so many French people lived in Algeria as settlers, the French government considered Algeria a part of France and was adamant that it could not become a separate country. The FLN (National Liberation Front) led the Algerian movement for independence.
The FLN sought self-determination through guerrilla techniques against half a million French forces sent to Algeria. While French military casualties were relatively low, hundreds of thousands of Algerians died in the war, often in violent street-by-street battles. French historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet confessed that there were "hundreds of thousands of instances of torture" by the French military in Algeria.
Algerian Civil War
followed(1991-2002), during which the FLN continued in control. The army chose President Abdelaziz Bouteflika in 1999. In his second term, he attempted to be more inclusive of insurgents, although suicide bombings continued. In 2011, the military state of emergency, in place since 1992, was finally lifted in response to protests in the wake of major uprisings in nearby states, including Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya.
Suez Crisis
Built by Egyptian laborers-thousands of whom died while working on the project-with money from French investment between 1859 and 1869, the Canal had been under lease to the French for 99 years. To the Egyptians, this lease symbolized colonial exploitation, which Nasser pledged to fight. In addition, the British owned interests in the canal, which they administered jointly with the French. In 1956, Nasser seized the canal, and Israel invaded Egypt at the behest of Britain and France. The two European countries then occupied the area around the canal, claiming they were enforcing a UN cease-fire. However, the United States and the Soviet Union opposed British and French actions and used the United Nations to broker a resolution
The removal of foreign troops was followed by an agreement for the canal to become an international waterway open to traffic of all nations under the sovereignty of Egypt. The UN deployed peacekeepers to the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Britain, France, and Israel were not happy with the interference of the United States in the Suez Crisis, but U.S. efforts led to a peaceful compromise. The incident also was an example of a nation maintaining a nonaligned position between the United States and the Soviet Union-the two superpowers in the Cold War.
Biafran Civil War
began in 1967 when the Igbos, a Westernized, predominantly Christian tribe in the southeastern oil-rich Niger River Delta area, tried to secede from the northern-dominated government. The Igbos sought autonomy because of targeted attacks against them by the Hausa-Fulani Islamic group in the north.
They declared themselves an independent nation
The Igbos' secession movement failed, and it ceased to exist when the war ended, in 1970. Nigeria granted amnesty to a majority of Igbo generals, but civilian government did not return. A series of military coups with generals in command of the government continued until the 1999 election of Olusegun Obasanjo, who presided over a democratic civilian government called the Fourth Republic of Nigeria.
Quiet Revolution
involved much political and social change in Quebec, with the Liberal Party gaining power and reforming economic policies that led to further desires for separation from the rest of British-controlled Canada. French Canadian nationalism expanded, and splinter groups adopted extreme tactics, including terrorist bombings that began in 1963. Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, a native of Quebec, was able to preserve the country's unity. Later, in 1995, a referendum to make Quebec an independent nation failed by a narrow margin.
Organization of African Unity
In keeping with his vision of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah founded it In 1963. However, three years later, a military coup overthrew Nkrumah's government and expelled many foreigners from the country. Not until 2000 would Ghana witness a peaceful transfer of civilian power from one elected president to another.
Viet Cong
War broke out between the communist North and the South. U.S. military troops supported the South. South Vietnamese who supported the Communists and fought a guerilla war with US troops
Six-Day War
1967, Israel fought on three fronts at once.
Israel gained the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
Camp David Accords
peace agreement between Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt. However, the Palestinians and several Arab states rejected the 1979 peace treaty.
Palestinian Liberation Organization
longtime leader Yasser Arafat wanted the return of occupied lands and the creation of an independent nation of Palestine.
Khmer Rouge
Following the Vietnam War, a communist guerrilla organization, under the leadership of Pol Pot, overthrew the right-wing government of Cambodia. Once in power, Pol Pot and it imposed a ruthless form of communism, following the Chinese model of"cultural revolution" that targeted intellectuals and dissenters.
Prague Spring
The reform movement in Czechoslovakia reached a peak in 1968. Alexander Dubcek, first secretary of the Communist Party, acceded to the demands of the Czech people by increasing freedom of speech and the press and allowing greater freedom to travel. He also agreed to make the political system more democratic.
As with Hungary, Soviet leaders feared the it’s independence.
Soon the armies of four Warsaw Pact nations crushed it.
Brezhnev Doctrine
named for then-Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, to justify its actions. This doctrine stated that the Soviet Union and its allies would intervene if an action by one member threatened other socialist countries.
Ulster Defense Association
The Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland became more violent in the 1960s, with Catholics fighting as part of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Protestants with the it. Between 1969 and 1994, some 3,500 people died in the conflict. Some members of the IRA took their independence campaign to England by engaging in acts of terrorism, the use of violence to achieve political ends. These acts included setting off bombs in London and other cities. In 1994, the two sides reached a cease-fire.
Later the IRA renounced violence and turned to politics to achieve its goals.
Shining Path
based on the ideas of Mao Zedong and Cambodia's Khmer Rouge. In 1980, it began decades of bombings and assassinations in Peru in order to overthrow the existing government and replace it with a communist one. It’s 20 years of terrorism caused an estimated 37,000 deaths.
Guzmán was arrested and sentenced to life in prison in 1992, though the it continued its attacks through the late 1990s. In 2011 one of the group's top leaders admitted defeat and began negotiations with the Peruvian government.
Nelson Mandela
South Africa, the white-minority government codified a system of racial segregation, called apartheid, into law in the 20th century.
Leading the black resistance to apartheid was a socialist lawyer. Though early in his life he sometimes supported sabotage and other forms of violence, he was known for leading nonviolent protests.
Perestroika
attempts to restructure the Soviet economy to allow elements of free enterprise
Glasnost
the policy of opening up Soviet society and the political process by granting greater freedom. Reagan and Gorbachev met three times in two years. The two men liked each other and, despite tough negotiations, created a working relationship that ultimately delivered results.
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