CH11: Motivation

Motivation

any internal process or condition that directs behaviour

Motive

a need or desire

5 Theories of Motivation

Instinct, Drive reduction, Arousal, Incentive, Hierarchy of needs

Instinct Theory

Behaviour is motivated by instincts that are inborn and that are activated by environmental stimuli

Drive reduction theory

Behaviour is motivated by biological needs to maintain the body in a state of balance or equilibrium (homeostasis)

Arousal Theory

Behaviour is motivated by the need to achieve optimum levels of arousal

Incentive theory

Behaviour is motivated by internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic) incentives or rewards

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Behaviour is motivated by the current most basic need

Instincts

inborn, automatic behavioural tendencies, activated by stimuli in our environments (eg: newborn reflexes, certain social behaviours)

Incentives

external motives that indirectly indicate reward

Primary incentives

rewards (food) or punishments (pain) that are innate

Secondary incentives

cues that are viewed as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events (work for money)

Physiological needs

Needs relating to physical survival (food, water, sex)

Safety needs

The need to feel safe and secure

Belonging and love needs

The need to have close relationships with others

Esteem needs

The need to feel good about oneself

Self-actualization needs

The need to become all that one is capable of becoming

Biological Motives

Biological but not merely instinctual

• We are built to be motivated by these things, but the kinds of behaviours we engage in to satisfy these motives varies a lot.

Obesity

body mass index (BMI) of over 30

Body mass index

weight-to-height ratio

Causes of obesity

• Genetics • Environmental/Social - socioeconomic status, portion sizes, social eating, social circle

• Psychological - self-regulation

Anorexia Nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by under-eating

Bulimia Nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by a cycle of binge-eating and then purging what was eaten

Binge Eating

Eating disorder characterized by out-of-control eating of a large amount of food at one time

Sexual orientation

one's relative attraction to individuals of varied genders and contains four related phenomena

4 elements of sexual orientation

Sexual behaviour, Sexual identity, . Sexual attraction, Sexual arousal

Sexual behaviour

the range of sexual behaviours a person engages in and who they engage in them with

Sexual identity

how a person thinks of themselves, and their sexual orientation regardless of whether or not they share their identity beliefs with others

Sexual attraction

which involves studying who a person is sexually attracted to

Sexual arousal

The extent to which a person is sexually aroused by erotic stimuli that includes individuals of different genders.

Conscious motivations

motivations that people are aware of and can verbalize

Unconscious motivations

motivations that people are unaware of and cannot verbalize

Hedonic principle

we avoid painful experiences and approach pleasurable experiences

Avoidance motivation

the desire to avoid the experience of a negative outcome following a behaviour

Approach motivation

the desire to experience a positive outcome following a behaviour

Loss aversion

a tendency to be motivated more strongly to avoid a loss rather than to achieve a gain, even if the potential loss and gain are of equal size

Amotivation

the state of being without motivation

Growth mindset

belief that hard work and effort can improve a person's skill or talent in a particular area

Fixed mindset

belief that talent is innate and that skill in a particular area is not determined by hard work and effor

Grit

long-term perseverance toward a goal

Affiliation

need to form attachments to other people for support, guidance, and protection

benefits of seeking affiliation:

• From birth we seek connections to others

• Relationships increase self-esteem

• People with social connections experience less depression

• People in healthy relationships live longer

drawbacks of seeking affiliation:

• People stay in abusive relationships and join gangs in an effort to belong

• The motive to affiliate is a big reason politics has become so polarized

• Social exclusion activates the same region of the brain as physical pain (anterior cingulate cortex)

• Long-term isolation can lead to permanent psychological damage

Emotion

an intrapersonal state in response to an internal or external event

Four components of emotion:

• Physiological

• Cognitive, feeling

• Physical, behavioural

• Emotional, behavioural

Physiological component of emotion

changes in bodily arousal (Heart rate, temperature, and respiration)

Cognitive/feeling component of emotion

subjective appraisal and interpretation of one's feelings and environment

Physical/behavioural component of emotion

expression of the emotion verbally and non-verbally (Smiling, frowning, whining, laughing, reflecting, slouching)

Emotional/behavioural component of emotion

keeping the emotion present (happiness) or removing it (sadness)

Cognitive functions of emotions

• Emotions help organize and retrieve memories

• Prioritize concerns, needs, and goals

• Guide judgments and help us make decisions

Behavioural functions of emotions

• Emotions alter behaviours

• Action tendencies

Action tendencies

emotions are associated with predictable patterns of behaviour that help us adapt and survive

Social functions of emotions

• Emotions are the foundation of relationships

• Emotions help improve relationship quality

• Helps with empathy and work performance

James-Lange theory of emotion

felt emotions result from physiological changes, rather than being their cause

Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion

the subjective experience of emotion and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (that is, bodily arousal) occur simultaneously

Schachter and Singer's Two-Factor Theory of emotion

an emotional state is a function of both physiological arousal and cognition

Cognitive-mediational theory of emotion (richard lazarus)

cognitive interpretations, particularly appraisals, of events are the keys to experiences of emotion

Facial-feedback theory of emotion

subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity, or facial efference

What is Positive psychology

study and enrichment of positive feelings, traits, abilities, and virtues

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Arousal increases performance up to a certain point, after which it interferes with performance

Implicit Association Task

research tool that measures subconscious attitudes and beliefs by assessing how quickly people associate concepts

Thematic Apperception Task

a projective psychological assessment that uses ambiguous pictures to reveal a person's underlying emotions, motivations, and conflicts through the stories they create

Self-determination theory

Competence, relatedness, and autonomy give meaning to life and are instinctive

Ways to Measure Emotions

Behavioural displays, Self-reports, Psychophysiological reactions

Evolutionary theory of emotion

emotions are innate, passed through generations because they are necessary for survival

Basic emotions

a group of emotions preprogrammed into all humans regardless of culture

delay grafitication

the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward in favor of a greater or more valuable reward in the future