unit 4: social psychology and personality

Attributions

Explain the behavior and mental processes of oneself and others.

Dispositional Attributions

Connect behavior to internal qualities like intelligence or personality.

Situational Attributions

Link behavior to external circumstances the person experiences.

Explanatory Style

A person's predictable pattern of attributions for good and bad events in their own life and other's lives.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to internal stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributes good events to external, unstable specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes.

Actor-Observer Bias

People tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, but attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating the influence of dispositional factors and underestimating the influence of situational factors when explaining other's behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to maintain self-esteem.

Locus of Control

Extent to which people believe they have control over events in their lives.

Mere Exposure Effect

Phenomenon where people tend to like a stimulus more simply because they've been exposed to it repeatedly over time.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When people's beliefs or perceptions about themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that elicit confirming behaviors from others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as better off, which can inspire self-improvement but may also threaten self-esteem.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone seen as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation to improve.

Relative Deprivation

Perception of being deprived of something one feels entitled to, often based on social comparisons.

Feigned Scarcity

Creating an illusion of rarity to increase perceived value and demand.

Validity Effect

The tendency to believe something is true after repeated exposure.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified, generalized beliefs about a particular group of people.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious or unacknowledged evaluations individuals hold about others.

Just-World Phenomenon

Assumes people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceives members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of one's own group.

In-Group Bias

Favors one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Judges other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to a belief even when presented with contradictory evidence. Is very difficult to overcome.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when actions and attitudes are inconsistent.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or beliefs to align with a group.

Valence

The emotional value (positive or negative) associated with a stimulus.

Normative Influence

Stems from the desire to be accepted and fit in with a group.

Informational Influence

Occurs when individuals rely on others for guidance in ambiguous situations.

Central Route Persuasion

Involves thoughtful consideration of arguments and evidence. It engages critical thinking and is more likely to lead to lasting attitude change.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Relies on superficial cues and emotional appeals.

Halo Effect

Attributes positive qualities to individuals based on initial impressions.

Foot-In-The-Door Technique

Starts with a small request before making a larger one.

Door-In-The-Face Technique

Begins with an extreme request that is likely to be rejected and is then followed up by a more reasonable request that seems like a compromise.

Superordinate Goals

Shared objectives that require cooperation among different groups. They reduce intergroup conflict and promote positive interactions.

Social Traps

Occur when individuals prioritize short-term self-interest over long-term collective well-being.

Social Reciprocity Norm

Suggests that people help others with the expectation of future reciprocation. Helping behavior creates a sense of social debt that the recipient feels obligated to pay.

Social Responsibility Norm

Dictates that people should assist those in need without expecting anything in return. It is reinforced by societal values and the belief that helping is the right thing to do.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Arises when individuals mistakenly believe that others are interpreting the situation differently. Leads to a collective failure to recognize the need for help or intervention.

Evaluation Apprehension

The fear of being judged negatively by others for one's actions. It inhibits helping behavior due to concerns about appearing foolish or overreacting.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal then when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal or anonymity.

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Group Think

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Social Control

The power of the situation over the individual.

Personal Control

The power of the individual over the situation.

Minority Influence

The power of one or two individuals to sway the overall majority.

Altruism

Dealing with stress through dedication.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Exchange Theory

States our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

Mutual views often held by conflicting people. Each side sees itself as ethnical and peaceful.

GRIT

A strategy to reduce conflict through gradual, mutual cooperation.

Psychodynamic Theory

Emphasizes unconscious processes in personality development. It explores how the id, ego, and superego interact, shaping behavior and emotions.

Humanistic Theory

Focuses on individual potential growth. It emphasizes unconditional positive regard and self-actualization as key factors in personality development.

Id

Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires.

Ego

Mediates between the demands of the id and the constraints of reality, operating on the reality principle.

Superego

Represents internalized moral standards and values, acting as the conscience.

Self-Actualization

The highest level of human need, representing the realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal growth and fulfillment.

Denial

Blocking out or disowning painful thoughts or feelings.

Acting Out

Performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person feels incapable of otherwise expressing.

Dissociation

Breaking off part of memory, consciousness, or perception of self or the environment to avoid a problem situation.

Compartmentalization

Lesser form of dissociation; parts of self are separated from awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate sets of values.

Regression

Reversion to an earlier stage of development when faced with unacceptable, fearful, threatening thoughts or impulses.

Repression

Unconscious blocking of unacceptable and disturbing thoughts, feelings, and impulses.

Suppression

Voluntary exclusion from awareness, anxiety-producing feelings, ideas, and situations.

Displacement

The transfer of negative emotion from one person or thing to an unrelated person or thing.

Reaction Formation

Converting unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings, or impulses into their opposites.

Projection

Taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people.

Rationalization

Occurs when we tell an element of the truth, but deny the larger truth of the matter.

Sublimation

Channeling of unacceptable and potentially disruptive impulses, thoughts, or emotions into socially acceptable behavior.

Compensation

A person tries to make up for his/her weaknesses by developing strengths in other areas.

Affiliation

Turning to others for help and support. Sharing problems with others, but not trying to make someone else responsible for them.

Identification

When a person tries to assume the qualities of someone that is admired.

Conditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and love that depends on meeting certain conditions.

Neurotic Trends

Irrational strategies for coping with emotional problems and minimizing anxiety.

Compliant Type

A personality type that seeks approval and affection from others.

Detached Type

A personality type that avoids relationships and seeks independence.

Aggressive Type

A personality type that seeks power and control over others.

Social-Cognitive Theory

Views personality as shaped by interactions between thoughts, behaviors, and environment. It emphasizes self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem as key factors in self-perception.

Reciprocal Determinism

A key concept in social-cognitive theory, suggests that personality is shaped by the dynamic interplay between personal factors and biological/environmental factors.

Self-Concept

An individual's view of themselves and their relation to others, is a central component of personality in social-cognitive theory.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's ability to succeed or accomplish tasks, contributes to self-concept and personality development.

Self-Esteem

The overall evaluation of one's worth or value, also plays a role in shaping self-concept and personality.

Trait Theories

Propose that personality consists of a set of stable, enduring characteristics that influence an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors across various situations.

Big Five Theory

Proposes that personality can be described by five broad dimensions or traits: agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability.

Factor Analysis

A statistical technique that identifies underlying factors or dimensions based on patterns of responses to a set of items or questions.

Cardinal Traits

Traits that dominate your personality.

Central Traits

Main traits that form your personality.

Secondary Traits

Variable traits, which differ depending on the current circumstance.

Person-Situation Controversy

Theoretical dispute concerning the relative contribution of personality factors and situational factors in controlling behavior.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Suggests behaviors are motivated by the need to maintain homeostasis and reduce physiological tension.

Arousal Theory

Proposes people seek an optimal level of psychological arousal and engage in behaviors to maintain that level.

Yerkes-Dotson Law

Demonstrates the relationship between arousal and performance follows and inverted U-shaped curve. Moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance while too much or too little hinders it.

Self-Determination Theory

Distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.

Incentive Theory

Focuses on the motivating power of external rewards. The value and likelihood of attaining the incentive influence its motivational strength.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choosing between two desirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

An option has both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between two undesirable options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

Suggests individual differences in the need for novel, varied experiences drive behavior.