BIO - Gentics

DNA replication

The process of duplicating the entire DNA molecule.

Protein synthesis

The process in which cells generate new proteins using the information encoded in DNA.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing mRNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of decoding mRNA to build a protein with a specific sequence of amino acids.

RNA polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.

mRNA (messenger RNA)

A type of RNA that carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized.

tRNA (transfer RNA)

A type of RNA that transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

RNA that, along with proteins, makes up the ribosomes, where translation occurs.

Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

Start codon

The first codon in an mRNA sequence that signals the start of translation, usually AUG for methionine.

Stop codon

A codon that does not code for an amino acid and signals the termination of protein synthesis.

One gene, one polypeptide hypothesis

The theory that each gene encodes for a specific protein, although some proteins may consist of multiple polypeptide chains.

Central dogma of molecular biology

The framework explaining the flow of genetic information from DNA to mRNA to protein.

Post transcriptional modifications

Modifications to mRNA after transcription, including the addition of a 5' cap and a poly-A tail, as well as splicing.

Intron

Non-coding regions of RNA that are removed during RNA splicing.

Exon

Coding regions of RNA that are retained and joined together during RNA splicing.

Peptide bond

The chemical bond that links amino acids together to form a protein.

Housekeeping genes

Genes that are essential for the maintenance of basic cellular functions.

Regulators

Proteins that control the expression of other genes, turning them on or off.

Transcriptional control

The regulation of gene expression at the transcription level.

Post-transcriptional control

Regulation of gene expression after transcription has occurred.

Translational control

Control of gene expression at the translation stage.

Post-translational control

Regulation of gene expression after the protein is translated.

Lac operon

A set of genes in prokaryotes that are involved in the metabolism of lactose, which is turned on by lactose as an inducer.

Tryp operon

A set of genes in prokaryotes that is normally on and is turned off by tryptophan as a repressor.

Point mutation

A single base substitution in the DNA sequence.

Nonsense mutation

A mutation that introduces a premature stop codon into the protein sequence.

Missense mutation

A mutation that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein.

Silent mutation

A mutation that does not affect the protein's function because it occurs in noncoding regions or does not change the amino acid sequence.

Insertion

The addition of one or more nucleotide bases into a DNA sequence.

Deletion

The removal of one or more nucleotide bases from a DNA sequence.

Frameshift mutation

A genetic mutation caused by insertions or deletions that alters the reading frame of the genetic message.

Spontaneous mutation

Mutations that occur without any external influence, often due to errors in DNA replication.

Induced mutation

Mutations that occur due to exposure to environmental factors, such as radiation or chemical substances.

Synthetic Biology

An interdisciplinary branch of biology that uses engineering principles to design and construct new biological entities.

E. Coli

A type of bacteria that has been genetically engineered to produce different colors in response to environmental factors.

Genetic Engineering

The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.

Transgenic Organism

An organism that has been genetically modified to contain DNA from another species.

Plasmid

A small, circular piece of DNA commonly used in genetic engineering to transfer genetic material.

Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, used in genetic engineering to isolate genes.

CRISPR

A genetic editing tool that allows scientists to precisely alter DNA sequences in organisms.

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.

Vector

A vehicle used to transfer genetic material into a cell, such as plasmids or viruses.

Gel Electrophoresis

A laboratory technique used to separate DNA fragments based on size by applying an electric field.

Biotechnology

The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.

Bioluminescent

Organisms that can produce and emit light through biochemical reactions.

Transformation

The process by which a cell takes up foreign DNA from its environment.

Gene Editing

The process of making specific alterations to the DNA of an organism.

Genetic Engineering in Medicine

The application of genetic engineering techniques to develop pharmaceuticals, such as insulin.

Ethical Concerns of Genetic Engineering

The moral considerations surrounding the manipulation of genetic material in organisms.

Nucleon

The biological function of _____ was not understood until the 1930s.

Proteins

Before the identification of DNA as hereditary material, ______ were thought to be the primary substance responsible for heredity.

Frederick Griffith

A scientist who demonstrated bacterial transformation and theorized about a 'transforming principle' between bacterial strains.

S strain

A virulent form of streptococcus pneumoniae that causes disease due to its smooth polysaccharide coating.

R strain

A non-virulent strain of streptococcus pneumoniae characterized by a rough outer coating that does not cause disease.

Transforming principle

The mysterious component hypothesized by Griffith to be responsible for transforming non-virulent R strain bacteria into virulent S strain.

Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment

An experiment that determined nucleic acids, not proteins, are the molecules of heredity.

Bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria, utilized by Hershey and Chase to study DNA as the genetic material.

Complementary base pairing

The pairing of nitrogen bases in DNA, where adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.

Genome

The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.

Telomeres

Non-coding sequences at the ends of chromosomes that protect against information loss during DNA replication.

VNTRs (Variable Number Tandem Repeats)

Repeated sequences in the genome that vary among individuals and are often non-coding.

Histones

Proteins around which DNA is coiled to form chromatin, allowing it to fit in the nucleus.

Nucleotides

The basic building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

Double helix

The structure formed by two strands of DNA coiling around each other.

Prokaryotic Genome

Circular in shape, unlike the eukaryotic genome which is organized into chromosomes.

Housekeeping Genes

Genes that are needed all the time and are constantly being transcribed.

Gene Regulation

The process by which cells control the expression of specific genes.

Transcription Factors

Proteins that help turn genes on and off.

Operon

A cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter, commonly found in prokaryotic organisms.

Promoter Region

A sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.

Operator

Part of DNA where repressor proteins can bind to block transcription.

Lac Operon

A type of operon in bacteria that regulates the breakdown of lactose.

Repressor

A protein that binds to the operator to prevent transcription of certain genes.

Inducer

A substance that initiates transcription by preventing the repressor from binding to the operator.

Co-repressor

A molecule that binds to a repressor protein to enable it to bind to the operator, thus blocking transcription.

Tryptophan Operon (trp Operon)

An operon that regulates the production of tryptophan in bacteria based on its availability.

Post-transcriptional Control

Regulation that occurs after mRNA is formed and can prevent it from leaving the nucleus.

Translational Control

Regulation of the rate at which mRNA is translated into proteins.

Post-translational Control

Regulation of the activity of proteins after they have been translated.

RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.

B-galactosidase

An enzyme responsible for the breakdown of lactose in E. coli.