PSYC

Independent variable

The variable that a researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable that a researcher measures in an experiment.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that can unintentionally affect an experiment's results.

Range of a correlation coefficient

$-1$ to $+1$

Research method determining cause and effect

Experiment

Correlation

A measure of how strongly two variables are related.

Axon

Carries electrical messages away from the neural cell body.

Myelin sheath

Speeds up neural impulses along the axon.

Synapse

The tiny microscopic gap between communicating neurons.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger released by neurons across a synapse.

Action potential

An electrical signal that travels down the axon of a neuron.

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Makes a receiving neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Makes a receiving neuron less likely to fire an action potential.

Neural network

A group of interconnected neurons that work together to process information.

Otto Loewi's experiment

Proved that neurons communicate with each other using chemical signals.

Case of Phineas Gage

Demonstrated that brain damage can alter personality and behavior.

Incorrect requirement for a neurotransmitter

The belief that it must always increase the receiving cell's activity.

Curare

Blocks acetylcholine receptors, causing muscle paralysis.

Botox

Blocks the release of acetylcholine, preventing muscle contraction.

Endorphins

Natural neurochemicals involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure.

Opiate receptors

Receptors in the brain that respond to opiate drugs and natural endorphins.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

All nerves and neurons located outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Nervous system activating fight-or-flight

Sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body and returns it to a balanced state after stress.

Reflex

A rapid, automatic, unlearned response to a sensory stimulus.

Cerebellum

Mainly responsible for posture, balance, and motor coordination.

Thalamus

Mainly responsible for relaying sensory information to the appropriate brain regions.

Hypothalamus

Mainly involved in regulating basic biological drives such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Amygdala

Mainly associated with processing emotions, especially fear.

Hippocampus

Mainly responsible for forming and consolidating new long-term memories.

Limbic system

A collection of brain structures mainly involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Temporal lobe

Cerebral lobe mainly involved in processing hearing, memory, and language.

Association cortex

Combines and processes information for complex cognitive functions like thinking, memory, and language.

Fissure of Rolando (central sulcus)

A major groove separating the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

Lateralization

The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere of the brain over the other.

Myelination

The development of a protective myelin sheath around neuronal axons.

Twins developed from a single fertilized egg

Monozygotic twins

Twins developed from two separate fertilized eggs

Dizygotic twins

Genotype

An organism's complete genetic makeup.

Phenotype

An organism's observable physical and behavioral characteristics.

Heritability index

Describes how much variation of a trait within a population is attributable to genetic differences.

Natural selection

The process whereby traits that improve survival or reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

Selective breeding

The process by which humans intentionally breed organisms for specific desirable traits.

Sexual selection

The evolutionary process where traits increasing mating and reproductive success become more common.

System preparing the body during fight-or-flight

Sympathetic nervous system

Function of myelination during brain development

Makes neural communication faster and more efficient.

Critical thinking in psychology

Carefully examining evidence and logic before accepting a claim.

John B. Watson

A pioneer behaviorist who argued psychology should focus exclusively on observable behavior.

Relationship between personality and the ARAS

Different baseline levels of brain arousal in the ascending reticular activating system influence personality and stimulation-seeking behavior.

Cerebral cortex development

Develops and matures gradually over time, with regions responsible for higher-level thinking maturing later.

Human mating preferences in evolutionary psychology

Studies how distinct reproductive pressures historically influenced male and female mate preferences.

David Buss

Psychologist known for extensive research on human mating strategies and mate preferences.

Richard Dawkins

Evolutionary biologist known for popularizing the gene-centered view of evolution and natural selection.

Main idea of the Buss–Dawkins discussion

Principles of evolution and natural selection offer foundational explanations for complex human behavior and mating strategies.

Plato's view on knowledge

Believed that certain knowledge is innate and present from birth.

Aristotle's view on knowledge

Believed that knowledge is acquired through sensory experience and direct observation.

Franz Gall

Known for phrenology, the disproven theory that bumps on the skull reflect personality traits and mental abilities.

Empiricism

The philosophical premise that knowledge comes directly from observation and sensory experience.

Structuralism

An early psychological perspective aiming to uncover the basic components of conscious experience through introspection.

Founder associated with structuralism

Edward Titchener

Functionalism

An early psychological perspective investigating the adaptive purpose or function of thoughts and behaviors.

Founder associated with functionalism

William James

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Founder of the first psychology laboratory

Wilhelm Wundt

Establishment of the first psychology lab

Founded in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.

Key figure in American psychology development

William James

Nature-nurture issue

The ongoing debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to behavior.

Wilhelm Wundt

Physiologist who established the first formal psychology laboratory in 1879.

William James

An early American psychologist who authored classic texts and developed functionalism.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis who emphasized the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wundt who brought structuralism to America and emphasized introspection.

B. F. Skinner

A prominent behaviorist who studied operant conditioning and how environmental consequences shape behavior.

Cognitive approach

Perspective in psychology focusing on mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Humanistic approach

Perspective in psychology emphasizing free will, personal growth, self-actualization, and human potential.

Psychodynamic approach

Perspective in psychology emphasizing unconscious conflicts, innate drives, and early childhood experiences.

Behavioral approach

Perspective in psychology focusing strictly on observable behaviors and environmental learning.

Biological / neuroscience approach

Perspective examining how the brain, nervous system, genetics, and biological processes shape behavior.

Evolutionary approach

Perspective explaining mental traits and behaviors through adaptations driven by natural selection.

Sociocultural influence on behavior

How social environments, cultural expectations, and interactions with others shape human thoughts and actions.

Basic research

Pure research conducted primarily to expand fundamental scientific knowledge.

Applied research

Scientific study designed to solve specific, practical real-world problems.

Engineering psychology

Specialty studying human factors and interactions with machines, technology, and environments.

Cognitive psychology

Subfield studying internal mental operations including perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving.

Biological psychology

Subfield analyzing how physical structures, physiological mechanisms, and genetics influence behavior.

Social psychology

Subfield investigating how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by social contexts.

Developmental psychology

Subfield studying psychological growth, change, and consistency across the human lifespan.

Community psychology

Subfield focusing on how individuals interact with their communities and broader social structures.

Health psychology

Subfield examining how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors influence physical health and illness.

Educational psychology

Subfield exploring psychological processes involved in learning, instruction, and educational settings.

School psychology

Applied subfield working directly with students, parents, and educators in school settings to support learning and development.

Clinical psychology

Subfield focused on diagnosing, understanding, and treating mental health disorders and psychological distress.

Personality psychology

Subfield studying enduring traits, behavioral patterns, and individual differences in personality.

Behavior genetics

Field studying relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental influences to behavioral variations.

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning process moving from specific observations to form broader general conclusions.

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning process moving from general premises or theories to test specific predictions.

Theory

An organized system of principles that explains observations and generates testable predictions.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a hypothesis or theory.

Replication

Repeating a scientific study using similar procedures to determine if original findings are reliable.

Operational definition

A precise statement detailing exactly how a variable will be measured, observed, or manipulated.