The knowing mind

Memory

the ability to retain

knowledge.

Memory is part of

a continuum of information processing that begins with

attention, sensation, perception, and learning, and progresses to the use of

stored information in thinking, problem solving, language, and intelligent behavior

Information processing continuum

flows from bottom up and top down (problem solving, thinking, memory, learning perception, sensation, attention

Memory three steps

encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

refers to the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory. (transformation of information from one form to another.)

Storage

retention of information

how long can storage in the brain last?

fractions of a second (sensory memory)

several seconds (short-term and working memory)

indefinitely (long-term memory)

Retrieval

The recovery of stored information.

two most common causes of retrieval failure

interference and stress

How did the evolution of memory allowed animals to use information from the past to respond quickly to immediate challenges?

responding quickly was a monumental advance in the ability to survive. Instead of reacting to each predator or source of food as a new experience, an animal with the ability to remember past encounters with similar situations would save precious reaction time.

forming memories requires..

energy

How are memories processed?

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

Stages of Atkinson Shiffrin model

sensory input — sensory memory — short-term memory — (rehearsal) — long term memory

Sensory memory

The first stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin model holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time. Possibly all information that affects the sensory

receptors at one time.

How long does data remain in sensory memory?

Data remain for brief periods, usually a second or less, that only last as long as the neural activity produced

by a sensation continues.

what is sensory input translated or transduced into?

Visual codes, haptic codes, acoustic codes

Visual codes

are used for the temporary storage of information about visual images

Haptic codes

are used to process touch and other body senses.

Acoustic codes

represent sounds and words.

Differences between acoustic codes and visual codes?

acoustic codes last longer than visual codes; possibly to meet our needs to hear entire

words and phrases before we can understand spoken language.

Short term memory

The second stage that holds a small amount of information for a limited time.

short term memory acquisition

None of the information is processed in short-term memory unless you pay attention to it. If you are distracted by

one of something, it is likely that you will need to ask your friend to repeat her number.

How long does short-term memory last?

Short-term memory appears to have remarkable limitations in duration. Without additional processing, information in

short-term memory lasts 30 seconds at most

Rehearsal

Repetition of information.

Short term memory limitations

George Miller (1956) argued that we can process between five and nine items, or “bits” (such as digits, letters, or words), in short-term memory simultaneously

What does short term memory allow you to do?

allows you to use information and then discard it

Chunking

The process of grouping similar or meaningful information together.

Working memory

An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously.

Differences between short term memory and working memory

First, short- term memory involves the passive storage of information, while working memory involves an active manipulation of information. Second, short-term memory was viewed as managing a single process at a time, whereas working memory was more complex, allowing multiple processes to occur simultaneously.

The phonological loop

The phonological loop is the working memory component

responsible for verbal and auditory information.

(e.g. As you repeat your friend’s phone number while reaching for your phone, you are using your phonological loop.)

The visuospatial sketch pad

holds visual and spatial information (e.g. When you describe the route from your friend’s dorm to your favorite coffee shop where you plan to hold your study session, you use your visuospatial sketch pad to describe the way.)

The central executive

manages the work of the other

components by directing attention to particular tasks

Divided attention requires

the skills of the central executive.

example of central executive

While discussing the route to the coffee shop with your

friend (phonological loop), you visualize the route

(visuospatial sketch pad), and your central executive

parcels out the right amount of attention to allow you

to do both tasks well.

The episodic buffer

provides a mechanism for combining information stored in long- term memory with the active processing taking place in working memory.

long term memory

The final stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories.

how does short term memory go to long term memory?

rehearsal

types of rehearsal

maintenance and elaborative rehearsal

maintenance rehearsal

which means simple repetition of the material

elaborative rehearsal

which involves linking the new material to things you already know.

what rehearsal is more effective?

elaborative rehearsal is a more effective way to move information into more permanent storage.

Levels of processing theory

The depth (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that

predicts its ease of retrieval.

levels of processing theory in reading a word example

These characteristics can be placed along a continuum of depth of processing from shallow to deep. The encoding of the appearance of a word requiring less processing and effort than the encoding of the sound of a word, which in turn requires less processing and effort than the encoding of the meaning or personal relevance of a word. According to the levels of processing theory, words encoded according to meaning would be easier to remember than words encoded according to their visual appearance because encoding meaningfulness produces a deeper level of attention and processing.

differences between working memory and long-term memory

serial position effect

serial position effect subgroups

primary effect & recency effect

Primary effect

superior recall for the first items on a list, believed to be a result from their storage in long-term memory

Recency effect

Superior recall for the last words on a list, believed to occur because these items remain in working memory at the time of recall

What Are the Different Types of Long-Term Memory?

declarative and nondeclarative memory

Declarative memory

A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize, including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memory.

Nondeclarative memory

An unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memory.

Declarative Memories are further divided into

semantic & episodic memory

semantic memory

A general knowledge memory. (your store of general knowledge in the form of word meanings and facts.)

Episodic memory

A memory for personal experience.

(more personal account of past experiences.)

Distinguish between semantic and episodic memories along four dimensions:

the type of information processed, the

organization of the information in memory, the source of the information, and the focus of the memory

type of information processed in semantic & episodic memories

Semantic memories contain general knowledge about the world, whereas episodic memories include more specific

information about events, objects, and people.

the organization of memory in semantic & episodic memories

Semantic memory is organized according to categories. Episodic memory, in contrast, is organized as a timeline.

the source of the information in semantic & episodic memory

Semantic knowledge originates from others. An episodic memory can result from a single, personal experience.

the focus of the memory in semantic & episodic memories

Semantic memory provides us with an objective understanding of our world, whereas episodic memory provides a

reference point for our subjective experience of the self.

autobiographical memories

We can see that semantic and episodic memories interact dynamically to provide a complete picture of the past; can contain factual, semantic aspects of personal experience without episodic aspects.

nondeclarative memories

as unconscious or implicit memories that are difficult to verbalize

3 types of nondeclarative memories

classical conditioning, procedural memory, priming

procedural memory

A nondeclarative or implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement; Ability to automate our performance.

what does procedural memory tell us?

how to carry out motor skills and procedures and are especially difficult to describe in words.

Priming

A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus;change in our response to a stimulus because of pre-exposure to related stimuli, explains many

everyday effects of familiarity.

priming is often studied using

a lexical decision task

connectionism

views the mind as a network made up of simpler units

or concepts. Their models of memory suggest that thinking about one concept automatically leads to thinking about related concepts and their properties.

Spreading activation model

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences.

how is long term memory organized?

using schemes (inferences)

schema

When we encounter new information, we attempt to fit the new information into an existing schema, or set of

expectations about objects and situations. Details that are consistent with our schemas are more likely to be retained, whereas inconsistent details are

more likely to be left out.

retrieval from short-term memory

that we search through short-term memory one item at a time, rather than retrieving its

contents all at once.

Cues

A cue is any stimulus that helps you access target information. The most effective cues are those we generate ourselves, a finding that students might find particularly useful.

cues might work because of a process known as

encoding specificity

encoding specificity

A process in which memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded.

retrieval from long term memory using cues

Each time you form a long-term memory, target information is encoded along with other important bits present

at the same time. As a result, each memory is processed in a unique and specific way because this exact

combination of bits is unlikely to occur again. Any stimulus that was present and noticed during this encoding

process could serve as a cue for retrieving the target memory.

tip of the tongue

Retrieval is not an all-or-none phenomenon. → proceeds step by step, with each new step bringing you closer to the

target. This gradual retrieval is best illustrated by the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon.

example of tip of the tongue

While trying to remember a word or name, you might retrieve the first letter of the item, but the complete item remains

elusive.

reconstruction during retrieval

When retrieved, information to be used flows from long-term memory back into working memory. The mind engages in

reconstruction, or the building of a memory out of the stored bits by blending retrieved information with new content

present in working memory

flashbulb memory

An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event.

stress and retrieval of emotional events

Stress occurring either before or after learning impairs memory formation

forgetting

A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory. In order to forget, must have already been formed.

Decay

A reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time.

Interference

Competition between newer and older information in memory.

proactive interferance

refers to reduced memory for target information as a result of earlier learning.

retroactive interference

Reduced memory for target information because of subsequent learning

How does interferance in memories happen?

The brain requires a measurable amount of time to produce a physical representation of a memory. In the window of time in which memories are being processed but are not yet fully consolidated, they may be subject to distortion, loss, or replacement by interference from other bits of information.

motivated forgetting

Failure to retrieve negative memories.

why does motivated forgetting happen?

Memory is a servant to our overarching goals. Retrieval is often influenced by our motivations, and our motivations can distort the memories we retrieve. While not exactly forgetting in the sense of our earlier definition, motivated distortions of memory can be so extreme that the original information is essentially lost during the process.

Memory at the Level of the Synapse

Forming new memories requires changes in the connections neurons make with one another at the synapse, or synaptic

consolidation.

what produces long-term structural changes to form memories?

Learning stimulates a cascade of gene expression, which in turn produces the long-term structural changes in neurons

that represent memories.

what happens to axon terminals following sensitization?

increases

what happens to axon terminals following habituation?

decreases

Long-term potentiation

One of the major processes responsible for change at the synaptic level during learning; enhances communication between two neurons.

how is long-term potentiation demonstrated experimentally?

This phenomenon can be demonstrated experimentally by

applying a rapid series of electric pulses to one area of the nervous system and observing the increased reactions of

cells receiving input from that area

Results from demonstrations of LTP suggest

suggest that the relatively simultaneous activation of a neuron sending information

and the neuron receiving this information produces changes that make the synapse between them more efficient.

both long-term memories and LTP can be formed

after only brief exposure to stimuli.

Working memory does not occur in..

a separate, isolated part of the brain. Instead, the phonological loop and visuospatial

sketch pad use the same posterior parts of the brain that are used in verbal and visual perception. Top-down influences

originating in the prefrontal and parietal cortex provide the attention necessary to maintain stimulus information in

working memory.

declarative memories and the hippocampus

The hippocampus clearly participates in the consolidation of semantic and location information into long-term memory; might also be involved with the re-experiencing of episodic memories throughout the

lifespan

semantic memories in the cerebral cortex

Semantic memories appear to be widely distributed across the cerebral cortex

naming tools activates areas of the frontal and parietal lobes

Naming tools activates areas of the frontal and parietal lobes normally associated with movements and action

words.

patients in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease

showed much more dramatic episodic memory deficits than semantic

memory deficits