AQA A Level Psychology Research Methods

Empirical method

The only source of knowledge comes through our senses (not inherited) and is gained through experience

Objective

All sources of bias are minimized and personal or subjective ideas are eliminated

Control

All extraneous variables need to be controlled in order to be able to establish cause and effect

Predictability/determinism

We should be aiming to be able to predict future behaviour from the findings of our research

Replication (reliability)

Whether a method and finding can be repeated with different/same people and/or on different occasions, to see if the results are similar

Features of science

Empirical methods

Objectivity

Replicability

Hypothesis testing/ theory

Scientific research methods

Lab experiment, field experiment, observation, natural experiment and quasi-experiment

Non-scientific research methods

Case study, questionnaire, interviews, content analysis and correlations

Aim

general statement of the purpose of an investigation

Hypothesis

testable statement about the expected outcome of the investigation

Operationalisation

Making the variables testable

importance of operationalisation

a hypothesis can only be tested if the variables being studied can be measured

Independent variable

the variable the researcher changes in order to test its effect on the DV

Dependent variable

the variable measured by the experimenter

Null hypothesis

A statement which predicts no difference or relationship in the results

Experimental/alternative hypothesis

A statement that predicts a difference or a relationship in results

Directional hypothesis (one-tailed)

Specifies the direction of results/correlation

Non-directional hypothesis

Does not state the direction of results and is used when there is no previous research or previous research has found contradictory results

Repeated measures design

same pps. used in both conditions of IV

Strength of repeated measures design

No participant variables as individual differences are eliminated and less pps. needed

Weakness of repeated measures design (d.c.)

demand characteristics due to pps. take part in all conditions

Weakness of repeated measures design (o.e.)

order effects e.g. boredom may occur (control using counterbalancing)

Independent groups design

Participants randomly allocated to 2 different groups

Strength of independent groups design

Lower chance of demand characteristics, no order effects due to only doing one condition

Weakness of independent groups design

Participant variables confound results cos there's different participants in different conditions, more pps. are required

Matched pairs design

pairs of pps. closely matched and randomly allocated to one condition/other

Strength of matched pairs

avoids order effects and demand characteristics, reduced individual differences, same material can be used in both conditions

Weakness of matched pairs

Can't fully match participants, time consuming and requires more pps.

Extraneous variable

a variable other than the IV that might have an effect on the DV (e.g. weather or noise) - should be controlled so they don't become confounding

Confounding variable

extraneous variables which do affect the DV i.e. 'confound' the results e.g. participants personalities

Situational variable

Aspects of the situation that interact with aspects of the person to produce behaviour (e.g environment, noise or time of day)

Operationalism

defining the variable so it can be measured numerically and specifies how variable will be tested

Participant variable

Individual differences between the pps. in the conditions of the IV

Counterbalancing

Used to balance out impact of order effects in repeated measures design (involves making sure each condition comes first/second in equal amounts) i.e. allows for order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions

Random allocation

Allocating pps. to experimental groups/conditions so pps. have an equal chance to take part in each condition (allows even distribution of pp. characteristics across conditions to avoid extraneous variables)

use of random allocation

addresses problem of pp. variables in an independent groups design

Standardisation

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants so individual experience does not become a confounding variable and i.e. enable replication

use of standardisation

addresses issue of experimenter bias as standardised procedures includes standardised instructions that are the same for all pps. i.e. deals with investigator effects

Randomisation

Making materials/order of conditions random to avoid researcher bias influencing design of the study

use of randomisation

avoids researcher bias influencing the design of the study i.e. control investigator effects

pilot study

small scale trial run of a study which takes place before the study

aims of a pilot study

check procedures, materials and measuring scales work, and allow the researcher to make changes if needed

use of pilot studies

allows practical details to be checked e.g. ensure instructions are easy to understand/ decide no. of pps. needed

use of pilot studies (questionnaires + interviews)

try out questions in advance, re-word/remove confusing ones

use of pilot studies (observation studies)

check behavioural categories + coding systems

significance of pilot studies

improves quality of research and avoid unnecessary work, save time and money

Demand characteristics

A cue in the experiment that helps pps. work out the aim of study, pps. then change their behaviour - either help/hinder this = confounding variable

reducing demand characteristics

single blind technique

deception

distractor questions

Single-blind technique (reducing DC)

The participants are unaware of the aim of the study

Investigator effects

Any influence of the investigator's behaviour that can affect the pps. performance

reducing investigator effects

- have an interviewer who had not witnessed the event /did not know the aims of the study so that they would not be affected by their own perception of the event

- use open-ended questions so that the interviewees were able to give a more detailed and accurate version of what they saw

- use questionnaire (or other means) to collect data without face to face interaction.

Double-blind technique (reducing IE)

A procedure in which neither the pps./experimenters know aim of experiment/key details of experiment i.e. no expectations

random sampling

every member of population has an equal chance of being selected, unbiased way, done by lottery in hat or computer generation

advantage of random sampling

unbiased as all members have equal chance of selection

disadvantage of random sampling

must know names of all pps., may not be representative of the population if bias occurs by chance, relies on all pps. participating if seleted

systematic sampling

selecting every nth pp from list of pps.

advantage of systematic sampling

reduces investigator bias cos researcher only decides sample size

disadvantage of systematic sampling

possibility of unrepresentative sample i.e. limiting generalisability

stratified sampling

subgroups within a population are identified and pps. are randomly selected from each strata in proportion to their occurrence

advantage of stratified sampling

sample is representative of population so can be generalised and avoids investigator bias afterwards

disadvantage of stratified sampling

if key features of population aren't identified sample won't be representative, limiting generalisability, very time consuming process and names of pps. need to be known

opportunity sampling

selecting people who are available at the time of the study

advantage of opportunity sampling

takes less time to locate sample as you use the first pps. you find

disadvantage of opportunity sampling

not representative of target population, and possibility of researcher bias in sample selection i.e. limits generalisability

volunteer sampling

advertisements are used to attract pps., pps volunteer, requires an incentive (dosh/prize)

advantage of volunteer sampling

easy method, less initial work (than random sampling)

disadvantage of volunteer sampling

sample bias - only set people will volunteer (atypical respondents with unique characteristics e.g. highly motivated, time wise) i.e. limits generalisability

Laboratory experiment

controlled environment, researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV, whilst maintaining strict control of confounding variables

strength of lab experiment (control)

successful control/elimination of all confounding variables (not easy to do so in field/natural/other research methods) allows cause and effect to be established

strength of lab experiment (replicability)

well carried out lab experiments can be repeated (hard to do so in field/natural due to rarity of circumstance) and if results are similar, reliability and replicability can be established

limitation of lab experiment (artificiality)

high levels of control = artificiality + different from real life (naturalistic obs/field experiments more likely to rep. real life), artificiality = difficult to generalise findings to other settings i.e. lacks ecological validity

limitation of lab experiment (demand characteristics)

(define demand characteristics) pps. may help experimenter/purposefully confound results (does not occur in field/natural experiment as pps. unware)

Field experiment

carried out in natural environment, experimenter manipulates the IV, pps. may be unaware of participation

strength of field experiment (improved ecological validity)

natural environment i.e. findings can be generalised to real life settings (advantage over lab experiment - why?)

strength of field experiment (reduced demand characteristics)

pps. unaware they're taking part i.e. demand characteristics minimised (advantage over lab experiment - why?)

limitation of field experiment (less control)

hard to control confounding variables - hard to replicate properly i.e. more hard to establish cause + effect (but lab experiment easy to do so cos of high control)

limitation of field experiment (time consuming)

takes longer to do cos of waiting for set conditions to occur (no issue for lab as experimenter controls timing)

Natural experiment

experiment where IV isn't directly manipulated but occurs naturally and researcher has no control over allocation of pps.

strength of natural experiment (reduced demand characteristics)

pps. are unaware they're taking part in study i.e. less influence of demand characteristics (advantage over lab experiment - why?)

strength of natural experiment (lack of direct intervention)

experimenter doesn't intervene directly i.e. insight into real life behaviour (advantage over lab experiment - why?)

limitation of natural experiment (loss of control)

IV not directly not manipulated - less control than lab/field i.e. hard to establish cause and effect cos of bare confounding variables

limitation of natural experiment (replication impossible)

naturally occuring situation occurs very rarely - replication = almost impossible i.e. hard to verify external validity of findings (lab experiment this is possible cos of control of variables)

Quasi-experiment

experiment that has an IV based on existing differences e.g. gender differences i.e. no manipulation of IV

strength of quasi experiment (replicability)

carefully planned out and carried out in controlled environments to allow replication (unlike natural experiments)

strength of quasi experiment (comparisons)

useful to compare between people where manipulation of variables = unethical/impossible/impractical

limitation of quasi experiment (confounding variables)

quasi experiments cannot randomly allocate pps. to conditions = confounding variables i.e. cannot establish cause + effect

limitation of quasi experiment (demand characteristics)

carried out in labs so may be demand characteristics

Ethical issues (crippd)

confidentiality

right to withdraw

informed consent

privacy

protection from harm

deception

Confidentiality

personal info should be kept anonymous + protected at all times

dealing with confidentiality

assign all pps. with a unique number/name

Right to withdraw

pps. right to leave study + withdraw data at any time

dealing with right to withdraw

inform pps. at the start/during/debriefing the study that they have the right to withdraw

Informed consent

pps. must be told true purpose of study before agreeing to take part - might make study pointless as it will result in artificial behaviour i.e. demand characteristics

dealing with informed consent

use prior general consent where pps. do a questionnaire and are asked indirectly whether they would take part in a study they are unaware of

Privacy

people are not observed unless publicly agreed

dealing with privacy

use retrospective consent where pps. are told after the study if they agree for their data to be shared

Protection from harm

Looking after the rights and welfare of participants to ensure no physical/psychological damage

dealing with protection from harm

debrief pps. at the end of the study to ensure they are good physically/mentally

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or withholding info about events

dealing with deception

use presumptive consent where a similar group of people are asked if they would take part in the study