Psychological Research Categories and Methods

Flashcards from Psychological Research Lecture Notes

What is the purpose of a descriptive study?

To observe and record behavior using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations.

What is manipulated in a descriptive study?

Nothing is manipulated.

What are the weaknesses of a descriptive study?

No control of variables; single cases may be misleading.

What is the purpose of a correlational study?

To detect naturally occurring relationships and assess how well one variable predicts another.

What is manipulated in a correlational study?

Nothing is manipulated.

What is a weakness of correlational studies?

They do not specify cause & effect.

What is the purpose of an experimental study?

To explore cause & effect relationships.

What is manipulated in an experimental study?

The independent variable(s).

What are the weaknesses of experimental studies?

Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize; ethical concerns may prevent manipulation of certain variables.

What is a case study?

In-depth study of behavior and mental processes associated with a unique individual or situation.

What are the strengths of case studies?

Provides detailed descriptive analysis & discovers new info leading to new research.

What are the weaknesses of case studies?

Can’t generalize results to a larger population & rare, unique cases can skew perceptions.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observation of human or animal behavior in the environment where it typically occurs.

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

Provides descriptive details of behavior that is uncontaminated by outside influences.

What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Can’t generalize results to a larger population due to non-control of sample & is not capable to identify true cause of observed behavior.

What is a survey?

A standard set of questions asked of a large number of subjects.

What are the strengths of surveys?

Gathers large amounts of data relatively quickly and inexpensively; Can study correlation of two variables.

What are the weaknesses of surveys?

Subject/Researcher bias can skew the results; can’t generalize results of studies without random, representative sample.

What is an experiment?

Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable.

What are the strengths of experiments?

Results can establish cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variable.

What are the weaknesses of experiments?

Results could be tainted or not reliable due to the issue of being unable to recreate “real world”. Laboratory environment not comparable to real world environment.

What is researcher bias in surveys?

Framing, which can impact subject responses based on how they phrase their questions.

What is the most effective method for achieving a sample that best represents population?

Method of Random Sampling, in which every member of population has equal chance of being in study

What is random assignment?

Method of dividing study subjects into two groups based on chance to minimize existing differences between two groups.

What is the control group?

Group not exposed to treatment providing basis for outcome variance when compared

What is the experimental group?

Group exposed to manipulated factor (Independent Variable)

What is a dependent variable?

Measurable behavior outcome that may vary in response to treatment of IV

What are confounding variables?

All other factors that can impact outcome if not controlled for in procedures

What is the placebo effect?

Documented impact of beliefs in pill alone relieving pain, depression & anxiety

What is the double-blind procedure?

Method of experimenting that doesn’t allow either subjects or research staff to know which subjects are receiving treatment and those who get a placebo, or fake treatment.

What is reliability?

Credibility of results of experiment that increase through similar results of replication studies that repeat the essence of previous study using different participants and materials

What are operational definitions?

Precise statements of procedures used to define research variables that are essential for other researchers to Replicate- repeat previous study

What is correlation?

Measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either can be used to predict movement of the other

What is positive correlation?

Relationship exists if two variables move in the same direction as each other, whether they increase or decrease

What is negative correlation?

Relationship exists if two variables move in opposite direction of each other, one increases as the other decreases

What is a correlation coefficient?

A statistical index, between -1 and 1 that is used to measure how strongly the two factors vary together, determining how well they predict the other.

What is central tendency?

Summary of data that uses a single score to represent whole data set of scores

What is the mode?

Uses most frequently occurring score to represent data set

What is the mean?

Most commonly used, finds arithmetic average of all the scores in data set

What is the median?

Uses the midpoint (50th percentile) by arranging set from highest to lowest

What is variation?

Summary that reveals how similar or diverse the scores in a data set are.

What is the range?

Gap between highest and lowest score in set, crude estimate due to impact of extreme scores

What is standard deviation?

Most useful, measures how much scores in set deviate from one another

What is a normal curve?

Displays the tendency of large numbers of data set scores distributed in nature.

What guides making generalizations to a larger population from our samples?

Representative sample is a better basis for generalizing than bias sample & Less –variable data sets are more reliable measures than those with higher variability

How do you decide whether differences are meaningful through statistical analysis?

When averages from two samples are each reliable measures of their respective populations, then their difference is likely to be reliable as well & When the observed reliable difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations

What is statistical significance?

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, it means that the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples

What is the accepted threshold for statistical significance in psychology?

Psychologists don’t recognize significance unless odds of chance occurrence are less than 5%

To observe and record behavior using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations.

What is the purpose of a descriptive study?

Nothing is manipulated.

What is manipulated in a descriptive study?

No control of variables; single cases may be misleading.

What are the weaknesses of a descriptive study?

To detect naturally occurring relationships and assess how well one variable predicts another.

What is the purpose of a correlational study?

Nothing is manipulated.

What is manipulated in a correlational study?

They do not specify cause & effect.

What is a weakness of correlational studies?

To explore cause & effect relationships.

What is the purpose of an experimental study?

The independent variable(s).

What is manipulated in an experimental study?

Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize; ethical concerns may prevent manipulation of certain variables.

What are the weaknesses of experimental studies?

What is a case study?

In-depth study of behavior and mental processes associated with a unique individual or situation.

What are the strengths of case studies?

Provides detailed descriptive analysis & discovers new info leading to new research.

What are the weaknesses of case studies?

Can’t generalize results to a larger population & rare, unique cases can skew perceptions.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observation of human or animal behavior in the environment where it typically occurs.

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

Provides descriptive details of behavior that is uncontaminated by outside influences.

What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

Can’t generalize results to a larger population due to non-control of sample & is not capable to identify true cause of observed behavior.

What is a survey?

A standard set of questions asked of a large number of subjects.

What are the strengths of surveys?

Gathers large amounts of data relatively quickly and inexpensively; Can study correlation of two variables.

What are the weaknesses of surveys?

Subject/Researcher bias can skew the results; can’t generalize results of studies without random, representative sample.

What is an experiment?

Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable.

What are the strengths of experiments?

Results can establish cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variable.

What are the weaknesses of experiments?

Results could be tainted or not reliable due to the issue of being unable to recreate “real world”. Laboratory environment not comparable to real world environment.

What is researcher bias in surveys?

Framing, which can impact subject responses based on how they phrase their questions.

What is the most effective method for achieving a sample that best represents population?

Method of Random Sampling, in which every member of population has equal chance of being in study

What is random assignment?

Method of dividing study subjects into two groups based on chance to minimize existing differences between two groups.

What is the control group?

Group not exposed to treatment providing basis for outcome variance when compared

What is the experimental group?

Group exposed to manipulated factor (Independent Variable)

What is a dependent variable?

Measurable behavior outcome that may vary in response to treatment of IV

What are confounding variables?

All other factors that can impact outcome if not controlled for in procedures

What is the placebo effect?

Documented impact of beliefs in pill alone relieving pain, depression & anxiety

What is the double-blind procedure?

Method of experimenting that doesn’t allow either subjects or research staff to know which subjects are receiving treatment and those who get a placebo, or fake treatment.

What is reliability?

Credibility of results of experiment that increase through similar results of replication studies that repeat the essence of previous study using different participants and materials

What are operational definitions?

Precise statements of procedures used to define research variables that are essential for other researchers to Replicate- repeat previous study

What is correlation?

Measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either can be used to predict movement of the other

What is positive correlation?

Relationship exists if two variables move in the same direction as each other, whether they increase or decrease

What is negative correlation?

Relationship exists if two variables move in opposite direction of each other, one increases as the other decreases

What is a correlation coefficient?

A statistical index, between -1 and 1 that is used to measure how strongly the two factors vary together, determining how well they predict the other.

What is central tendency?

Summary of data that uses a single score to represent whole data set of scores

What is the mode?

Uses most frequently occurring score to represent data set

What is the mean?

Most commonly used, finds arithmetic average of all the scores in data set

What is the median?

Uses the midpoint (50th percentile) by arranging set from highest to lowest

What is variation?

Summary that reveals how similar or diverse the scores in a data set are.

What is the range?

Gap between highest and lowest score in set, crude estimate due to impact of extreme scores

What is standard deviation?

Most useful, measures how much scores in set deviate from one another

What is a normal curve?

Displays the tendency of large numbers of data set scores distributed in nature.

What guides making generalizations to a larger population from our samples?

Representative sample is a better basis for generalizing than bias sample & Less –variable data sets are more reliable measures than those with higher variability

How do you decide whether differences are meaningful through statistical analysis?

When averages from two samples are each reliable measures of their respective populations, then their difference is likely to be reliable as well & When the observed reliable difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations

What is statistical significance?

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, it means that the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples