Lec 18: "Invertebrate Spain": From Fin de Siècle to Postwar Crisis

The Restoration and the "Turno Pacífico" (1874-1902)

• Topic: The Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and the Turno Pacífico system.

• Key Points:

  • The Restoration began in 1874 when Alfonso XII was restored to the throne after the collapse of the First Spanish Republic.

  • Cánovas del Castillo created the “turno pacífico”, a system of alternating power between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party.

  • Conservative Party: Led by Cánovas, it supported traditional values, political centralization, and economic stability.

  • Liberal Party: Led by Sagasta, it supported progressive reforms like constitutional government and secularization.

  • This system prevented political violence, but was marked by electoral fraud, the manipulation of elections, and a lack of true democratic representation.

Political System and Clientelism in the Restoration

• Topic: The political system of the Restoration and clientelism.

• Key Points:

  • Clientelism: Local bosses (caciques) controlled votes and elections through patronage, using clientelist networks to maintain power.

  • Despite being a constitutional monarchy, the system was more about elite consensus and power-sharing than democratic participation.

  • Electoral fraud: Widespread use of manipulated elections, ensuring the ruling elite remained in control, with minimal popular participation.

  • Limited suffrage: Only about 5% of the population had voting rights, which prevented meaningful political reform.

  • The system helped maintain political stability, but it also caused public disillusionment, leading to growing demands for more democratic reforms.

The Role of the Monarchy in the Restoration

• Topic: The role of the monarchy during the Restoration period.

• Key Points:

  • The monarchy, particularly under Alfonso XII (1874-1885), played a crucial role in legitimizing the Restoration system.

  • Alfonso XII was seen as a figurehead who provided stability and political legitimacy to the system, though power was largely in the hands of political elites.

  • Queen María Cristina (regent from 1885-1902) continued her husband’s legacy, but struggles within the court and between political factions weakened her authority.

  • The monarchy’s limited powers were constrained by Cánovas’ political strategy, which excluded many popular movements and focused on maintaining control through elite negotiations.

Challenges to the Restoration System: Regional Nationalisms

• Topic: Basque and Catalan nationalism during the Restoration.

• Key Points:

  • Basque Nationalism: Rooted in the Carlist Wars, Basque nationalism was tied to Catholic identity, regional autonomy, and the desire for a Basque nation.

  • The Restoration put an end to Basque fueros (local privileges) in 1876, leading to discontent and the rise of Sabino Arana’s Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) in 1895.

  • Catalan Nationalism: Catalonia’s growing bourgeoisie and industrialization spurred demands for cultural autonomy and linguistic revival through the Renaixença movement.

  • Political Movements: The Lliga Regionalista in Catalonia became a key political player advocating for regional autonomy and reform within the Spanish state.

The Decline of Spain’s Colonial Empire and the Spanish-American War (1898)

• Topic: The loss of Spain’s overseas empire and the Spanish-American War.

• Key Points:

  • 1898 marked a turning point with the Spanish-American War, in which Spain lost its remaining colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

  • Cuba: A key market for Spanish industries, but the inability to end slavery and political reforms contributed to growing Cuban nationalism and unrest.

  • US Intervention: US involvement in the war resulted in Cuba’s “independence” under US protectorate status, and Spain lost its economic and strategic dominance in the Caribbean.

  • Impact on Spain: The loss of colonies greatly weakened the legitimacy of the Restoration, leading to a national identity crisis. The loss also hit Spain’s economy, particularly affecting the industrialized regions like Catalonia and the Basque Country.

The Impact of the 1898 Crisis and the “Generation of 1898”

• Topic: The Generation of 1898 and its reflection on Spain's decline.

• Key Points:

  • The Generation of 1898 was a group of intellectuals, including Miguel de Unamuno, Antonio Machado, and Pío Baroja, who reflected on Spain’s decline and the loss of empire.

  • These thinkers called for regeneration and a return to modernity, criticizing the political elites, Catholic orthodoxy, and authoritarianism.

  • The cultural crisis they highlighted was known as “Invertebrate Spain,” which emphasized Spain’s inability to modernize and confront its internal divisions.

  • Their writings explored the essence of Spain, particularly focusing on the role of Castilian identity and historical unity, while criticizing Spain’s backwardness in comparison to other European nations.

Morocco and the Scramble for Africa

• Topic: Spain’s role in Morocco and the Scramble for Africa.

• Key Points:

  • Unlike Britain and France, Spain had a secondary role in the Scramble for Africa, with limited territorial claims.

  • Saharan Territories: At the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), Spain secured claims in the Western Sahara, though its colonial ambitions were limited compared to other European powers.

  • Moroccan Protectorate: In 1912, the Treaty of Fez established the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco, which included the northern Rif region and southern Ifni.

  • Resistance: Spain faced strong resistance from Moroccan tribes, notably in the Rif War (1921-1926), where Spanish forces faced defeats against Abd el-Krim's fighters.

The Spanish Art and Culture of the Early 20th Century

• Topic: The role of art and culture in early 20th-century Spain.

• Key Points:

  • Antoni Gaudí: Gaudí’s architectural works, especially the Sagrada Familia, became emblematic of Catalan Modernism and were deeply influenced by religious themes and natural forms.

  • Joaquín Sorolla: Known for his landscape paintings, Sorolla captured the unique Spanish light, particularly along Spain’s coasts, with a focus on beach scenes and family life.

  • Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Renowned for his pioneering work in neurobiology, Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience. His contributions helped shape Spanish science despite the country’s deep political and economic crises.