B6- GCSE (2)

what did the human genome project aim to map out

the complete human genetic code

what did scientists work tigether to do?

sequence all 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome

what did the HGP identify?

20,500 human genes

how much genes did it find that linked to diseases?q

2,000

what can people get screened for?

how genetic diseases work → people can get screened to detect health risks early and start treatment sooner

what does iot aid?

the diagnosis and treatment of inherited disorders→ letting us quickly identify faulty genes

what can be tailored to a patient’s specific genetic makeup

new personalised drugs and therapies

what can learning about their genetic risks cause/

stress and health issues for some people

what can genetic discrimination lead to?

unfair treatment in jobs and insurance for those with certain gene variants

what are there concerns about

the misuse of genetic data by employers and insurers→ need for privacy protections

what key info does the HGP offer in tracing human migration patterns?

genetic markers revealing ancestral origins and migration routes

how does the HGP enhance our understanding of the link between genes and diseases

by mapping out the entire human genome and revealing genetic variations

what can cutting be used to do?

quickly and cheaply clone a desirable plant

how is cutting used? (1st stage)

find a desirable plant that you want to clone

2nd stage/`

cut off a small part (ideally a growing shoot or branch)

stage 3?

place the cutting in some soil, along with some nutrients and maybe some hormones

stage 4||/

the cutting will grow into a clone of the original fruit

what is micropropagation’s first step (using tissue cultures)

find a plant with desirable characteristics that you want to clone

2nd stage?

take a very small piece of plant tissue called explants from the tips of stems

3rd stage

sterilise the explants to remove any microorganisms

4th stage

place the explants in a nutrient medium (agar) and let them grow into small masses of cells called calluses

5th stage/

transfer the calluses to soil where they can grow into plantlets

stage 6?

the plantlets can then be tgransferred to their own pots to develop into genetically adult plants

……………why is studying fossils so important

most things that have ever lived are now extinct so the only way we can learn aboiut them is to see what they have left behind

what can we do by studying these fossils

see how organisms have changed overtime evidence for (evolution) as we’re able to see the small incremental changesd that took place over time

what are examples of fossil fuels?

organisms that haven’t decayed

what is one way that fossils are formed?

by gradual replacement by minerals

what is an example of this?

as teeth , bones shells decay slowly they can graduallly be replaced by minerals and form rock-like substances

what happens when we dig them up and separate them from the surrounding rock

a model of the bone it was made from

how do we get casts

when an organism is buried in soft material like clay, as it hardens organism decays, left with gap as the same size and shape

what are impressions?

footprints where organisms leave a mark on the ground that stays there overtime

how can fossil fuels also be formed by?

preservation where no decay happens, this happens when organisms get stuck in amber or tar pit

…what are exmaples of this?

……..can happemn in glaciers where it’s too cold for the microorganisms

what are the oldest fossils that we’ve found so far between

three and a half to four billion years old as we dopn’t have a complete fossil records where we don’t reallu know what happened

why dop we still not know how life developed on earth

many early life forms were soft bodied so they would’ve decayed very quickly, making any fossil remains unlikely

what may have happened to fossils formed long ago?

may have been destroyed since by volcanoes earthquakes, movement of tectonic plates

how can we say a species has gone extinct?

when no individuals of that species remain

why might extinction happen?

when an environment changes temp too quickly or habitat cut down or a new predator arrives and kills them

what do bacteria sometimes develop?

random mutations in their DNA which could change characteristics resulting in the bacteria being less affected by the antibiotic

what is an antibiotic resistant strain?

when the resistant bacteria forms a new colony on its own which all have the gene for antibiotic resistance

what does it mean if the antibiotics we’re using aren’t effective

youre still infected so you can pass on this antibiotic resistance bacteria to other people

what do we call bacteria that are resistant to loads of different antibiotics?

superbugs

what is an example of a superbug?

MRSA- resistant to a lot of antibiotics

who does MRSA often affect?

people in hospitals where it can sometimes be fatal

when bacteria develop resistance what is it actyually?

partial resistance soi by completing the course of antibiotics the bacteria could still be killed, so important to take antibiotics for the full length

how much antibiotics is given to animals

2/3 of 100,00 tonnes

what do farmers do?

put antibiotics in the food of healthy animals to prevent them from getting ill in the first place and make them go faster

what is developing new antibiotics proving?

difficulyt and slow

what did carl lijjaeus do

group