ss

Absolutism

A political system where a ruler holds absolute power, claiming divine right.

Divine Right

The belief that a ruler's authority comes directly from God.

Louis XIV

French monarch known as the 'Sun King', famous for building the Palace of Versailles.

Peter the Great

Russian czar who modernized Russia and built St. Petersburg.

Philip II

Spanish king who was a defender of Catholicism and led Spain into decline.

Frederick the Great

Prussian leader known for strong military and promoting enlightenment ideas.

Limited Monarchy

A government where a monarch’s power is limited by a constitution or laws.

Magna Carta

Signed in 1215, it limited the power of the King of England.

Glorious Revolution

The 1688 bloodless overthrow of James II, leading to William and Mary ruling under constitutional limits.

English Bill of Rights

A 1689 document that guaranteed rights to citizens and established Parliament's superiority.

Scientific Revolution

A period of major scientific discoveries from the 1500s to the 1700s that relied on observation and reason.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory, placing the Sun at the center of the universe.

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist who improved the telescope and supported the heliocentric theory.

Isaac Newton

Mathematician known for formulating the laws of motion and gravity.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who developed the scientific method.

John Locke

Philosopher who proposed natural rights of life, liberty, and property.

Montesquieu

Philosopher who advocated for separation of powers in government.

Voltaire

Writer who championed free speech and religious tolerance.

Rousseau

Philosopher known for his 'Social Contract' theory, advocating for government serving the people.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Advocate for women's rights and gender equality.

American Revolution

Conflict from 1775-1783 in which the thirteen American colonies gained independence from Britain.

Taxation without Representation

Colonial grievance against British taxes imposed without colonial representation.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring US independence from Britain, written in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson.

Battle of Saratoga

Turning point in the American Revolution that gained French support for the Americans.

Battle of Yorktown

Final major battle of the American Revolution where British General Cornwallis surrendered.

Treaty of Paris

Agreement that ended the American Revolution and recognized US independence.

French Revolution

Revolution from 1789-1799 that led to the overthrow of the monarchy and rise of radical groups.

Three Estates

Social class system in France: Clergy (First), Nobles (Second), Commoners (Third).

Storming of the Bastille

Event in 1789 marking the start of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Proclaimed in 1789, it declared freedom and equal rights for all men.

Reign of Terror

Period of extreme violence during the French Revolution led by Maximilien Robespierre.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution and became Emperor.

Napoleonic Code

Legal system established by Napoleon that promoted equality and merit in government.

Invasion of Russia

Failed military campaign in 1812 that led to Napoleon's downfall.

Battle of Leipzig

1813 battle where Napoleon was defeated by European coalitions.

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, leading to his exile.

Industrial Revolution

Period of transition to new manufacturing processes from the late 18th to early 19th century.

Agricultural Revolution

Improvements in farming that led to increased food production and population growth.

Steam Engine

Innovation that powered machines, trains, and ships, vital for the Industrial Revolution.

Spinning Jenny

Invention that revolutionized the textile industry by increasing cloth production.

Factory System

Method of manufacturing that replaced small workshops with large factories for mass production.

Urbanization

The process of population movement from rural areas to cities, increasing during the Industrial Revolution.

Labor Unions

Organizations formed by workers to advocate for better working conditions and rights.