Introduction to Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Vocabulary flashcards covering the fundamental concepts, terminology, and key theorists of Classical and Operant Conditioning.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest, such as the sound of a bell before pairing.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned, such as meat.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, innate response that is not associated with previous learning, such as salivation when seeing food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Extinction

Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.

Spontaneous Recovery

The re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Trial

The pairing of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Acquisition

The initial stage in learning where the strength of the conditioned response increases rapidly.

Stimulus Contiguity

The state of stimuli occurring together in time and space.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.

Reinforcement

The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

The Law of Effect

Formulated by Edward L. Thorndike in $1913$, it states that responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcer

Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.

Primary Reinforcer

Satisfies some biological need and works naturally regardless of a person’s prior experience, such as food.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcement, such as money.

Positive Reinforcement

A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.

Negative Reinforcement

An unpleasant stimulus whose removal from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again.

Punishment

A stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again.

Positive Punishment

Weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.

Negative Punishment

Consists of the removal of something pleasant to weaken a response.

Continuous Reinforcement

A schedule where behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement

A schedule where behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given only after a certain number of responses; it tends to produce the highest rate of response among intermittent schedules.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed; overall rates of response are relatively low.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A schedule where the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.

Shaping

The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a specific response.

Biological Constraints

Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to learn particular behaviors.

Mowrer’s Two-Process Theory

The theory that avoidance begins because classical conditioning created a conditioned fear, which is then maintained through negative reinforcement.