All Unit 1 AP Psychology Combined

Taste Buds

Sensory receptors on the tongue that detect taste.

Gustation

The sense of taste, involving taste buds and various taste sensations.

Supertasters

Individuals with a higher number of taste buds, typically experiencing more intense flavors.

Olfaction

The sense of smell, involving olfactory receptors and pathways to the brain.

Pheromones

Chemical signals that can attract mates within the same species, potentially affecting behavior.

Biopsychosocial Model of Pain

An approach that considers biological, social, and psychological factors in the perception of pain.

Gate-Control Theory of Pain

A theory explaining that pain signals are modulated by neurological 'gates' in the spinal cord.

Phantom Limb Syndrome

A condition in which individuals experience sensations, including pain, in a limb that has been amputated.

Kinesthesis

The sense that detects the position and movement of the body parts.

Vestibular Sense

The sense that helps maintain balance and spatial orientation.

Sensory Interaction

The phenomenon where two or more pieces of sensory information are processed simultaneously.

Synesthesia

A condition where stimulation of one sense leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in another sense.

Soundwaves

Vibrations that travel through air or another medium, which are perceived as sound.

Frequency

The number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given time; determines the pitch of the sound.

Amplitude

The height of soundwaves; determines the intensity or volume of the sound.

Place Theory

A theory that links the pitch we hear with the location of stimulation on the cochlea’s membrane.

Frequency Theory

A theory stating that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the sound.

Volley Theory

An extension of Frequency Theory where action potentials are fired by neurons slightly out of sync to perceive greater frequencies of sound.

Auditory Canal

The channel in the outer ear that directs sound waves to the eardrum.

Tympanic Membrane

A membrane in the middle ear that vibrates in response to sound waves, transmitting sound further into the ear.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear where sound vibrations are transduced into neural messages.

Auditory Nerve

The nerve that transmits transduced neural messages from the cochlea to the brain.

Conduction Hearing Loss

Hearing loss due to problems with the structure of the ear that prevents sound waves from reaching the cochlea.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve, affecting communication with the brain.

Decibels

A logarithmic unit used to measure the intensity of sound.

Hearing Aid

A device used to amplify sound for individuals with hearing loss.

Cochlear Implant

A surgically implanted electronic device that provides a sense of sound to individuals with severe hearing loss.

Cornea

The eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and lens; very sensitive with lots of nerves.

Astigmatism

An atypical bend or curve in the cornea or lens that causes blurry vision.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue around the pupil that controls its size; it dilates in low light and contracts in bright light.

Accommodation

The process by which the lens changes shape to focus images on the retina.

Myopia

Nearsightedness, a vision condition where light does not reach the retina due to a too long eyeball.

Hyperopia

Farsightedness, a vision condition where light extends beyond the retina due to a too short eyeball.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains receptor cells (rods and cones) for processing visual information.

Ganglion Cells

Cells in the retina that receive messages from rods and cones and converge to form the optic nerve.

Rods

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect black, white, and grey; necessary for twilight and peripheral vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect fine detail and color; work best in bright light.

Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three types of cones (red, green, blue) which can produce perception of any color when combined.

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that color perception is controlled by opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

Color Blindness

A condition where a person has an altered ability to see colors; includes monochromatism (total blindness) and dichromatism (partial blindness).

Optic Nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind Spot

The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot with no receptor cells.

Blindsight

The ability of the eyes to gather information without conscious sight perception, allowing response to light.

Prosopagnosia

A condition also known as face blindness, where a person cannot recognize faces despite having normal vision.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Transduction

The transformation of sensory stimulation into neural impulses.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Subliminal Stimuli

A stimulus that is below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference)

The minimum difference between two stimuli necessary for the difference to be detected 50% of the time.

Weber’s Law

To detect Just-Noticeable Difference, stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a fixed amount.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock of regular body rhythms that are roughly 24-hours.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Paired clusters of cells in the hypothalamus that control your circadian rhythm.

NREM Sleep

Non Rapid Eye Movement, which includes all stages of sleep except REM.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement; brain is very active, and vivid dreams may occur.

Sleep Spindle

Short bursts of high-frequency brain waves that occur during NREM-2.

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Melatonin

A hormone secreted by the pineal gland in response to darkness, regulating sleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder in which breathing stops during the night, sometimes requiring a CPAP machine.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking, which is far more common in children and typically harmless.

Night Terrors

Episodes of intense fear, screaming, and flailing while still asleep, usually resolving at puberty.

Brainstem

The oldest and innermost region of the brain, responsible for keeping us alive.

Medulla Oblongata

The part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation

A structure that controls arousal and some voluntary movements.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information, where all incoming sensory info (except smell) first arrives.

Cerebellum

Located at the rear of the brainstem; involved in processing sensory input and coordinating movement and balance.

Limbic System

A set of structures in the middle of the brain associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two neural clusters linked to emotion, fear, and aggression.

Hypothalamus

Regulates eating, drinking, and body temperature; links to emotion and governs the endocrine system.

Pituitary Gland

Small gland at the base of the brain that directs hormone production.

Endocrine System

System directed by the pituitary gland that controls hormone production and release.

Hippocampus

Helps process and store explicit memories.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level functioning, divided into four lobes.

Corpus Callosum

A large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres.

Prefrontal Cortex

Located in the left frontal lobe; involved in planning, decision-making, and personality expression.

Broca’s Area

Located in the left frontal lobe; involved in expressive language.

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left temporal lobe; involved in receptive language.

Nervous System

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Nerves

Bundled axons of many neurons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movement and transmits sensory information to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary body functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body and expends energy; increases heart rate and blood pressure.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy; decreases heart rate and stimulates digestion.

Sensory Neurons

Carry information from sensory organs to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Carry information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Enable communication between sensory and motor neurons; located in the spinal cord.

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses.

Action Potential

An electrical impulse triggered when the threshold is met, sending down the axon toward other cells.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Neural Firing

The process that occurs when neurons transmit signals.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron.

Reuptake

The process by which the sending neuron reabsorbs its released neurotransmitters.