Interpersonal relationships

Human relationships

what does the biological approach argue?

That human attraction is rooted in natural selection

• We are attracted to traits that will most greatly benefit our offspring

• Attraction is mainly a physiological response

what do the physiological responses of attraction include?

• neurotransmitters

• hormones

• pheromones (potentially)

what are the 2 key limitations of the biological origins of human attraction?

• much of the research is correlational so a cause-effect relationship cannot be established

• much of the research is done using animal models - making assumptions on the extent in which we can compare human relationships to what we see in the rest of the animal kingdom

when a person is attracted to someone

they show distinctive features such as an altered mental state with mood swings

• from depression to joy depending on the response of the loved one

what is the idea proposed by anthropologist Helen Fisher?

• romantic love is a motivation system that humans share with other mammals

• there is a specific attraction system in the brain associated with dopamine rich areas

• system has evolved to attract mates + enables individuals to focus mating energy on one specific partner (monogamy)

What does the attraction system postulate?

• characterised as a biochemical cocktail

• consists of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin

Dopamine

• feel good neurotransmitter

• motivation

Noradrenaline

• controls emotions + stress

• stimulates production of adrenaline

Serotonin

• serotonin levels drop when we fall in love

• low levels of serotonin in those newly in love can result in obsessive thinking + heightened mood swings

testosterone

• not a neurotransmitter

• increases sexual desire + feelings of aggression

as a relationship develops over time

a couple moves from attraction to more intimate relationship

• linked with feelings of comfort, security, relatedness (attachment)

What did Bowbly suggest in terms of attachment

• humans have an innate attachment system consisting of specific specific behaviours + physiological responses called attachment behaviours

Vasopressin

• hormone that plays a role in long term commitment

• released during sex

oxytocin

• hormone released in both men and women

• released during touching and sex

• may intensify feelings of attachment

• Also released during childbirth

• suppresses activity of the amygdala, lowering feelings of anxiety and aggression

key aspect of natural selection in terms of offspring health

immune system of any offspring would be as effective as possible

cognitive reserchers argue that

the extent in which people perceive another person as similar to them may be one explanation of attraction

what is the similarity attraction model?

people like and are attracted to others who are similar rather than dissimilar to themselves

linking to the theory of the similarity attraction model

• couples tend to be similar in age, religion, social class, cultural background etc.

aim of Markey & Markey

the extent to which similarity is a factor in the way people choose a partner

procedures of Markey & Markey

• questionnaires

• large self selected sample of undergraduate students

• asked to describe the psychological characteristics, values, attitudes of their ideal partner

• were then asked to describe themselves

findings of Markey & Markey

• the way participants described themselves aligned with traits they sought in in their ideal partner

procedures of markey & Markey follow up study

• 106 straight young couples who had been together for a year

• self selected sample of 212 participants were recruited through ads in the local news + uni campus

• ppl filled out a questionnaire abt their own + partners characteristics

findings of Markey & Markey follow up study

• aligned with the first initial study

• couples who experiences the most healthy relationships have partners similar to them

evaluation of markey & Markey

• based on self reported questionnaires = responses may have been vulnerable to demand characteristics (ie. social desirability)

• based off a relatively large sample size + enhances reliability of the study

• only consisted of young American students + not possible to generalise to other populations

• used correlational analysis + difficult to establish a cause - effect relationship

role of schema in formation of relationships?

• children form schema based on our first bonded relationship (often with our mother or other caregiver)

• process of forming attachment is based on experience

• this schema is called the internal working model

what are the elements of the internal working model

• ideas about oneself

• ideas of how oneself and others relate

• ideas about attachment figures + what we can expect from them

the working model will

determine our relationships with other people and the way we view ourselves in the future

• we tend to reproduce our internal working model in later relationships

what is the halo effect?

the tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion on another area

how does the halo effect affect formation of relationships?

• a persons physical beauty may influence our judgement in regards to their other qualities

• aka, beautiful people must be good people

evaluating cognitive explanations of attraction

• cognitive theories account for personal differences in attraction

• many of the studies are high in ecological validity

• some constructs are difficult to measure (ie. internal working model)

• factors in relationship formation are impossible to isolate under natural conditions

• this approach may be overly simplistic (reductionist)

psychologists argue in the sociocultural approach that

there is no empirical proof that cognition precedes any form of decision making

what did zajonc propose

mere exposure effect is a key player in the formation of relationship

what is the mere exposure effect

• people tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them

• the more exposed we are to something the more we grow to like it

the role of culture in the formation of relationships

• culture has an effect on the formation of relationships

• who we find attractive and how they are formed

• passionate love is largely a western phenomenon

findings of Levine et al in regards to culture and marriage

• individualistic countries were more likely to rate love as an essential for marriage

• the disappearance of love is sufficient reason to end a marriage

• dion & dion noted in traditional societies marriage is more than a union between two individuals but a union between two families

aims of buss

• to investigate cross cultural preferences in mate selection

• one of the largest cross cultural studies on relationships ever undertaken

procedures of buss

• over 10,000 participants

• to test 3 evolutionary based assumptions on mate selection

• 37 samples from 33 countries

• mean age of 23

• all countries sample had at least 100 ppl

• samples from each country were collected using diff techniques

• each sample was asked to complete 2 surveys

• survey 1 - biographical data (asked what age they preferred to marry, who should be older, how many children etc)

• then asked to rate 18 characteristics on how important they are using a 4 point scale

• survey 2 - translated and back translated

• 13 characteristics asked to rank in terms of desirability in a mate

findings of buss

• 36/37 of the samples women liked rich men more than men

• all samples men preferred young women

• females wanted older guys

• 34/37 of the samples showed that men prioritise hotness more than females

• 23/37 of the sample valued Chasity

evaluation of buss

• samples cannot be viewed as representative of population of each country

• some demographics were underrepresented

• highly diverse geographically

• wide variety of sampling techniques

• difficulties with construct validity

• surveys = quantitative data

• parallel forms reliability

• translation and back translation

• do not explain why these preferences exist just that there is a correlation

• temporal validity

evaluating sociocultural

• account for cultural differences

• experimental and easily replicable studies

• poorly defined variables of attraction or liking

• majority of research is etic in nature

communication as a key role in relationships

• influences what attracts us to someone

• how we maintain relationships

distress maintaining patterns of behaviour

blaming your partner for what happens which not acknowledging positive events

social penetration theory

close relationships are formed by a process of gradual self disclosure (being vulnerable with someone you trust)

• disclosure is part of a cost-benefit analysis in any relationship

• self disclosure + self fvalidation

what are the 4 levels of disclosure

• orientation - small talk

• exploratory - opening up

• affective - reaalyyyy opening up + sex

• stable - farting in front of the huzz while having sex while telling them about your religious trauma

The rules that govern a relationship

• relationships are built toff riles to minimise conflict, or the potential for

• ie. privacy, emotional support, deception (most important duh)

social exchange theory

relationships are maintained via a cost benefit analysis

• the cost must not outweigh the benefit

• the more u invest the more u expect in your ROI

• it can only endure as long as its profitable to both partners

equity theory

• to explain infidelity

• wife swan, husband frog, in cheating on her husband she feels she owes him loyalty = resolving balance in sense of equity

• TLDR, if a partner feels unequal in a relationship, chances of infidelity increases

fatal attraction theory

• what attracts us to our partners may end up being the reason the rs ends

aim of Gottman

• the role of both positive and negative affect on marital satisfaction and the risk of divorce

what are the 4 horsemen of the apocalypse

• criticism

• contempt

• defensiveness

• stonewalling

• communication styles play a key role in the maintenance/dissolution of a relationship

procedures of Gottman

• determine the role of positive factors specifically the active listening model (validation model) - listener is not defensive, but is validating

• couples were recruited from news ads

• had to have been married for the first time within 6 months of participating + childless

• 124 couples assessed with MAT annually for 6 years

• in marital interaction assessment was a couple talking about a problem they butt heads on

• asked to sit quietly for 2 minutes of physiological measures

• specific affect coding system used to code for conflict resolution

• active listening was measured

• spouses watched back individually on videotape

• adjusted an emotion dial during the interaction

findings of Gottman

• active listening model did not predict positive outcomes

• husband wife nigh intensity negative effect predicted divorce

• wife’s low intensity negative affect predicted divorce

• 17 divorces at the end of the 6 years

• active listening was rarely demonstrated in discussion

evaluation of Gottman

• data triangulation

• interceder reliability

• SPAFF has high reliability \

• self selected sample + sampling bias

• approach is reductionist

• internal validity of longitudinal studies + prospective research is problematic