Exam 3

Provide two functions of the muscular system.

anchorage, heat generation (thermoregulation), movement, open and closes different compartments

What mechanism drives ventilation in amniotes?

costal ventilation - aspiratory pump

What are three methods to remove nitrogenous waste?

ureotelism, uricotelism, ammonotelism

Provide two groups which possess both the right and left systemic arches

squamates and crocodiles and testudines (basically any sauropsids that aren't birds)

What are the two functions of the urinary system of vertebrates?

regulation (osmoregulation - maintaining ionic concentration in the body) and waste removal (nitrogenous wastes)

Provide two modifications to the axial skeleton found in tetrapods that aid in the transition from aquatic to more terrestrial lifestyles

sacral vertebrae and zygopophyses

How does the respiratory system of mammals differ from the remaining amniotes and why is this a more efficient form of respiration than the plesiomorphic condition of amniotes?

Ends in branching and alveolar sacs to increase surface area - helps increase rates of gas exchange

Provide two types of osmoregulation in vertebrates which possess that type of osmoregulation

osmoconformers - hagfish

osmoregulators - chondrichthyans

hyporegulators - found in marine environments

hyperregulators - found in freshwater environments

Why is ventilation via the buccal pump not very efficient?

different selection pressures on the same structure - what is driving the breathing is competing against what is being used for eating

What are two characteristics of amniotes?

- amniotic egg and impermeable skin

- costal ventilation and temporal fenestra

In which group of vertebrates do we first see a complete separation of the atrium into the right and left chambers?

Amphibians

What group of amniotes does not possess costal ventilation and why?

testudines - ribs are part of shell

What is a secondary palate? Provide a group which possesses a secondary palate.

crocodiles; the secondary palate separates the oral and nasal cavities

What are the three different types of blood vessels in vertebrates?

arteries - oxygenated blood except for pulmonary

veins - deoxygenated blood except for pulmonary

capillaries - highly branched

Provide two groups of vertebrates that possess a true double circuit of the circulatory system.

mammals and aves

What are the components of the circulatory system?

blood, vessels, heart

Provide two bones in the jaws of fishes that become incorporated into the middle ear. Also, provide their homologous counterpart in the middle ear.

hyomandibular - stapes

quadrate - incus

articular - malleus

angular - auditory bulla

What are Darwin's four postulates?

- individuals vary within a population

- variation can be passed down

- more offspring is produced than will survive

- the ones that survive will have favorable traits that will be more likely to survive due to those favorable traits (survival is not random)

Which group of vertebrates are capable of uricotelism?

Sauropsids

Which aortic arches are lost in all tetrapods?

1 and 2

What are the two characteristics of chondrichthyes?

- placoid scales and pelvic clasper

- cartilage is surrounded by calcium (very durable)

Provide two trends in the evolution of the muscular system of vertebrates

- become more specialized

- shift to appendicular versus axial musculature

- muscles vary depending on the environment

What is the plesiomorphic condition of the aortic arches in vertebrates/gnathostomes?

six arches

What is the plesiomorphic condition of the heart in vertebrates?

sinus venosus

atria

ventricles

conus arteriosus

(four chambers total)

What are the three phyla that make up the protochordates?

hemichordata, urochordata, cephalochordata

Compare and contrast osmoconformers and osmoregulators (1 similarity and 1 difference)

- osmoconformers - don't do anything to remain isotonic

- osmoregulators - use energy to remain isotonic

- similarity - both remain isotonic to environment

Provide two characteristics of mammals

mammary glands and sweat glands

What are the three components of the cardiovascular system in vertebrates?

vessels, heart, blood

What is the major organ and structural unit of the urinary system?

kidney - nephron

Explain how blood flows through the heart of mammals in a single circuit, i.e., which chambers and organs it flows through in which order

Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → body → capillaries → heart → starts over!!

Provide two modifications of the appendicular skeleton that occurred during the transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments

- pelvic girdle attached

- pectoral girdle detached from cranium

How do the aortic arches of mammals and birds differ?

mammals - left

birds - right

What are the five chordate characteristics?

dorsal hollow nerve chord

notochord

urostyle

pharyngeal slits

postanal tail

Provide one aquatic and one terrestrial group of vertebrates which are capable of ureotelism

mammals (terrestrial)

chondrichthyes - isotonic, osmoregulators (aquatic) (also coelocanths and lungfishes)

What would happen to a freshwater teleost (hyper-osmoregulator) if it were to be placed in saltwater?

it would die because it would dry out

What are the two types of temporal fenestration observed in vertebrates and which two groups possess them?

synapsid - synapsid

sauropsid - diapsid

What is unique about the respiratory system of archosaurs and how could this have helped them to become

unidirectional air flow - more efficient and allows them to take up more oxygen from environment

Provide three of the five stages of embryonic development

zygote, blastula, morula, gastrula, neurula

Provide the three functions of the circulatory system in vertebrates

transport, regulation, protection

What are the two characteristics of amphibian integument that facilitates cutaneous respiration?

highly vascularized and very thin

What is the difference between the jaws of chondrichthyans and osteichthyans?

osteichthyans - premaxilla, maxilla, dentary

chondrichthyans - palatoquadrate and meckel's cartilage

What are the three types of muscle tissues, where can they be found and how can they be distinguished?

smooth - organs, GI; involuntary, unstriated, single nucleus

cardiac - heart; involuntary, striated, single nucleus, intercalated discs

skeletal - bones; voluntary, striated, multinucleated

Homoplasy or convergent evolution is a major problem when it comes to understanding the evolution of vertebrates. Define homoplasy/convergent evolution, provide an example of homoplasy in vertebrates and explain why it is a clear example of homoplasy

- birds and bats do not share a common ancestor but have same function

- convergent evolution: evolve independently

- underlying morphology different

What are the two functions of the gas bladder of osteichthyes and which one is likely to be plesiomorphic? explain why

- swim bladder and lungs

- buoyancy and breathing

- lungs - plesiomorphic condition

- evidence - cladistians (bichirs) have lungs; sarcopterygians have lungs; we do not see swim bladders until we are farther down in development

What is the difference between red and white muscle?

- red = high myoglobin; resistant to fatigue, highly vascularized, steady movement

- white = low myoglobin, contracts rapidly, fatigues quickly, not highly vascularized, short bursts of movement

What trends do we observe in the evolution of the musculature system of vertebrates?

- more specialized = more precise, has more fine control and more complex movement

- axial --> appendicular (relates to transition of land)

What is the relationship between size and simple diffusion? What is one of the simplest ways to address the issue associated with this relationship?

- inversely proportional; high --> low concentration, size increases = slower diffusion, size decreases = faster diffusion

- increase surface area = solution

- can be done through folds and papillae (but you want to leave the volume alone while increasing surface area)

-increases gas exchange efficiency

Why are fishes so efficient at pulling oxygen out of water?

- gills = very highly folded for surface area (primary lamellae all have secondary lamellae)

- countercurrent flow for gas exchange

In which group did gas bladders first appear?

osteichthyes (swim bladders and lungs)

Two methods of lung ventilation on land are the buccal pump and aspiratory pump. How do these differ? Which groups possess each?

-buccal cavity = depends on buccal cavity (jaws); amphibians

-aspiratory pump = depends on lungs and the muscles around it; amniotes

The respiration of archosaurs is much more efficient than other amniotes. Why is this the case?

- it is unidirectional; tidal flow not efficient as unidirectional flow because you have leftover air in the airsacs; there must always be a certain % of air in lungs

How do the lungs of mammals differ from what we can observe in other amniotes?

alveoli = increasess surface area for gas exchange

What are the three major functions of the circulatory system?

-transportation

-regulation

-protection

What are the three major components of the circulatory system?

blood, heart, vessels

What is the plesiomorphic condition of the aortic arches and hearts of vertebrates/gnathostomes?

- aortic arches: six aortic arches (tied to the pharyngeal arches as well)

- heart: all four chambers - sinus venosus, atrium (left and right), ventricle (left and right), and conus arteriosus

Provide one modification to the aortic arches and one modification to the heart in the circulatory system of lungfishes that is tied into their unique respiration

- lack gills to aortic arches 3 and 4; they have gills on 5 and 6; allows oxygenated blood to go back to aorta

- heart: spiral valve in conus arteriosus; responsible for keeping the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate

How does the aortic aches of amniotes differ from that of other vertebrates?

- lose the 5th arch; only 3,4, and 6

- ventral aorta divides into multiple separate arteries leaving the heart (left and right systemic arches)

- 3rd aortic arch - blood to head

- 4th aortic arch - blood to body

- 6th aortic arch - blood to lungs

What is the major difference between the circulatory system of birds and mammals that provides evidence that their respective four-chambered hearts are the results of convergent evolution?

- mammals retain the left systemic arch

- birds retain the right systemic arch

True or false. Red muscle is used for rapid short bursts of movement and fatigues easily.

FALSE

Which of the following is the contractile unit of a muscle cell?

sarcomere

Provide two functions of the muscular system in vertebrates.

helps to produce movement and to generate heat

There are at least two points of attachment for a muscle the _____ which is immovable and the ____ which is the bone being moved.

origin; insertion

Provide two trends observed in the evolution of the musculature system of vertebrates.

1. Muscles become more specialized to help produce more precise and accurate movements.

2, Appendicular muscles become more specialized and more evident while axial muscles become reduced as the transition to land/terrestrial environments occurred.

Which of the following indicates a muscle which aids the prime mover with a particular movement by adding force to the movement?

synergist

Which of the following types of muscle tissue contracts involuntarily and possesses cells which are striated, branched and mononucleate?

cardiac muscle

True or false. Muscles either push or pull on the skeleton to produce movement.

FALSE

What are the two major functions of the respiratory system?

removes waste products of cellular respiration (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) and promotes gas exchange by providing oxygen to the body for cellular respiration

Which of the following methods of ventilation are used by amniotes to move air through the lungs?

aspiratory pump

In which of the following groups did gas bladders first appear?

osteichthyes

How do the lungs of mammals differ from the lungs of other amniotes?

They have alveoli that increases the surface area of the lungs for gas exchange

Which of the following groups does not possess costal ventilation?

testudines

Which of the following groups possess costal ventilation?

mammalia, crocodylia, aves

Gas exchange between the blood and tissues of the body is known as _____

internal respiration

Which of the following groups of amniotes has unidirectional air flow through the lungs?

aves

Which of the following methods of ventilation are used by fishes to move water across their gills?

dual pump

As size increases, it becomes more difficult to acquire oxygen and remove carbon dioxide through simple diffusion. How does the respiratory system overcome this difficulty in vertebrates?

The respiratory system overcomes this difficulty in vertebrates by increasing the surface area. This increases the overall efficiency of gas exchange. For example, it can be done by having folds and papillae added to the anatomy of the respiratory system. This allows the volume to remain the same while simultaneously increasing the surface area.

Which of the following aortic arches always forms the pulmonary artery in vertebrates?

VI

Which of the following groups does not possess a ventricle that is completely separated into right and left halves?

squamates

Which of the following is not true about the heart of vertebrates?

The cardiac muscle of the heart in all vertebrates receives oxygen from passive diffusion as blood moves through the heart.

Which of the following is true about the heart of vertebrates?

- the heart can contain up to four chambers in vertebrates

- valves between chambers of the heart ensure blood flows unidirectionally

- the heart generates its own electrical impulses for muscle contraction

In which group of vertebrates does a complete separation of the atrium into right and left compartments occur?

amphibians

Briefly define double circulation as it pertains to the vertebrate circulatory system

Double circulation occurs when blood travels through the heart two times during every singular circuit.

How many aortic arches are present in the ancestral condition of vertebrates/gnathostomes?

6

What are the three functions of the heart in vertebrates?

protection, transportation, regulation

Which of the following aortic arches supplies blood to the head in amniotes?

III

Provide the three components of the circulatory system in vertebrates.

heart, blood, vessels

Which of the following groups is not capable of removing waste via ureotelism?

Aves

Provide the two major functions of the urinary system in vertebrates.

1. regulation

2. nitrogenous waste removal

What are the two major components of a nephron?

1. convoluted tubule

2. renal corpuscle

Which of the following represent aquatic vertebrates which maintain an ionic concentration higher than the surrounding body of water?

hyper-osmoregulators

Which of the following is the major organ of the urinary system?

kidney

What are the two major lineages of amniotes?

1. sauropsids

2. synapsids

Provide the 5 characteristics of chordates.

1. notochord

2. dorsal hollow nerve chord

3. postanal tail

4. pharyngeal slits/pouches

5. endostyle

True or false. The role of the nephron loops of birds and mammals are to dilute the urine to help rid the body of excess water.

FALSE

Briefly define evolution.

changes in the gene pool in a population over a period of time