case studies paper2

World organisations

World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Union (EU), and Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN). National governments have promoted economic globalisation, although recently there has been an opposite reaction in some developed countries, most notably the USA and those in Europe.

political influences on globalisation

ASEAN: An agreement between 10 SE

Asian countries to link their production and markets to create equal economic development and a competitive region integrated with the global economy.

Part of the agreement is for easy flows of people, goods and finance between the countries. It has attracted considerable external FDI.

• Liberal economic policies:

National governments encourage entrepreneurs to start businesses (e.g. lower taxes) and privatise businesses as part of free-market economy (e.g. removing restrictive rules). They join and promote free-trade blocs.

• EU: A trade bloc with intergovernmental agreement on trade within the group of countries and common tariffs on goods from outside the bloc. This increases political and economic interactions within the bloc. It also increases global power for the bloc

economic influence

WTO: Works to reduce tariffs and trade barriers, discourage subsidies and establish free trade links between all countries rather than preferential deals between countries.

• World Bank: Provides loans, grants and technical assistance to help countries develop economically and tackle poverty. It works with governments and multilateral organisations and global banks.

• IMF: Supports countries that get into financial difficulties so that they can continue to participate in global trade, and keep the global monetary system stable.

• TNCs and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Large corporations invest in other countries and make links between resource supply points, manufacturing areas and consumer areas.

the rise of china

Prior to the death of the Chinese leader

Mao Zedong in 1976, China was an insular

communist country with a centralised planned economy. In 1978, his successor Deng Xiaoping introduced economic reforms that set the country on a path towards a more open market economy, known as the 'open door policy.

• In 1980 four SEZs were set up (for example, Shenzhen). Three of these were in Guangdong near Hong Kong (which returned to Chinese control in 1997).

• In the mid-1980s whole coastal cities (for example, Zhangzhou) were chosen to link with global capital, technology and talent.

• The 1990s saw economic growth in China and SEZs were upgraded and new zones created with FDI such as the China-Singapore Cooperation Park.

• In the 21st century, China became the world's top trading nation (from 2013) and set up regional industrial/high-tech/ agricultural parks and areas. SEZs have 45% of total FDI, 60% of exports, and over 30 million jobs (accelerating industrialisation according to the World Bank). However, SEZs and similar areas created regional disparities within China as growth focused on the coast.

difficulty relating to globalisation

North Korea has experienced a
dictatorship and mismanagement of resources and economy (KOF political
globalisation score = 33.8;
social globalisation
score = 18.2.
• Afghanistan suffers from terrorism and has little political ability or experience (KOF Index = 38.7).

economic reasons liking to difficulty for globalisation links

Kazakhstan has large foreign debts ($164 bn in 2016) and has been unable to make economic links (KOF economic globalisation = 43.0).

• Bangladesh had the second lowest adult literacy rate in 2016 (72.8%) and the second lowest KOF economic globalisation score (20.9), so has difficulty engaging with external links.

positives of global shift

example: Shanghai, China).
• Waged work: Factories and offices offer formal jobs with better pay, attracting people and providing a workforce (example: Bangalore, India).
• Poverty reduction: The number of people earning less than the UN minimum target
(Sustainable Development Goal 1 = $1.90 a day)
has halved since 1990 (example: Ethiopia).
• Education and training: Money from selling goods or services enables governments of emerging economies to invest in schools and higher education, producing a population with skills to secure the global shift (example: Thailand).

karachi a mega city

Rapid growth of central city from 9.3 m (1998) to 15 m (2017).

• 50% of the population live in slums (homes made of bamboo and industrial waste in dry riverbeds).
• 75% work in the informal sector.
• Poverty means that the city government does not receive much tax money; it also suffers from corruption - both reduce what can be done about problems: e.g., sewage is directed to storm drainage channels rather than being treated properly.

elite and low wage migration

International economic migration has contrasts, with the very rich and the very poor moving.

• Elite migration: Wealthy Russians are attracted to the world city of London because it is a key financial centre providing investment opportunities and a world city lifestyle (inward flow of £250b between 2004 and 2013).
• Low-wage migration: Filipino female workers move to the Middle East for low-wage jobs in rich households (maids, cooks, cleaners and nannies: Saudi Arabia 1.1m, UAE 0.5 m, Qatar 0.4m). They return $28 bn in remittances (9.8% of Philippines GDP).

case studie westernised diets in china

Globalisation is helping to shift Asian diets towards 'Western' styles, such as meat and vegetables rather than rice. As Asian people become wealthier they are more connected to 'Western' lifestyles, helped by global supermarket chains and fast-food restaurants.
• Positives include a more varied diet and less time preparing food, which allows more women to enter the workforce.
• Negatives include an expansion of farming, which causes a loss of natural environment. Often the attitude towards the physical environment is that it provides resources for people.

mega and sdg

Development is also shown by the progress emerging and developing countries made towards meeting the UN's Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (by 2015) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (by 2030). For example, Papua New Guinea only made small progress with MDGs - forest loss (Goal 7) improved by 9% and women's share of paid employment (Goal 3) by 15%. In 2018 the UN created an SDG Index but PNG had no data.

open borders

For example, the UK has received waves of migrants from different world regions, first from the Caribbean in the 1950s, then South Asia in the 1960s, African and East Asian refugees in the 1970s, and Eastern Europe in the 2000s.
In 2011, 13% of UK residents were born outside the country (mostly from India, Poland and Pakistan).

People moving with economic flows have created culturally mixed societies. Some of these are thriving migrant diasporas but others suffer from tensions.

extremism in europe

In the 2010s a significant number of people in several countries voiced concerns about large-scale immigration, leading to the rise of political parties with the same viewpoint.

• In Hungary this resulted in new laws to criminalise actions that help illegal immigrants, because the country received many immigrants from the Middle East.
• Southern and Eastern European countries are concerned about the influx of migrants from Africa, leading to an anti-immigration government in Italy, and attempts to close its borders to immigrants.
• In Germany the ruling political party was greatly weakened by its pro-immigration stance.

explain the uk pop growth

• In 2015 the UK's population was 65.1 million.
• Between 2005 and 2015, the UK's population grew between 3.5% and 4% per year. This rapid growth rate has happened with increased immigration from European countries.
• In the 1960s, the UK's population also grew rapidly. This was the "baby boom' that followed the end of the Second World War (1939-45).
• In the 1970s and 1980s, the UK's population grew very slowly - around 0.2% per year between 1975 and 1980. This coincided with deindustrialisation and other economic problems.
The population of the UK has grown unevenly in the last 50 years. Some regions (eg. South East England) have grown rapidly while others (eg. North East England) have grown more slowly

variations within urban areas ;london

Population density changes according to where a place is on the rural-urban continuum, but there is also a lot of variation in density and structure within urban areas. For example, in London:
• Islington has a population density of 15817 people per km?.
• Richmond upon Thames has a population density of 3408 people per km?
And also in London:
• In inner London, 33% of the population are between 25 and 39 years old.
• In outer London, 24% of the population are between 25 and 39 years old.

differences in fertility

Newham (see population pyramid) has a higher than average number of children under 10 and of people between 20 and 39.
• Newham has the highest birth rate in England (113.9 live births per 1000: the average for England is 65.5).
• This above average fertility is linked to the above average 20-39-year-old - the years when most people have children.
• There is also a link to migration.

difference in mortality

Only 6.7% of Newham's population are aged over 65, compared to 16.5% nationally.
• Newham's mortality rate is significantly higher than the national rate.
• Male life expectancy is 2.5 years less than average; it is 1.5 years less for women.
• A 2012 survey found Newham had one of the lowest rates in England for people taking exercise.
• Cancer survival rates are lower than average, partly because people leave it too long before going to see a doctor.

differences in internal migration n

very diverse. Whites make up 30% of the population (compared to 82% nationally: UK).
• Three-quarters of babies in Newham are born to women born outside the UK.
• People who migrate tend to be young adults (higher fertility).

variations in populations characteristics in the uk between settle meets

• Many Poles joined the UK military after Nazi Germany invaded their country in 1939. Many were stationed in Swindon and stayed there after the war was over.
• In the 1950s there were not enough British workers for Bradford's textile mills.
Pakistani migrants filled the shortage, taking over from German and Irish migrants who had increased Bradford's diversity in the 19th century.
• The trend of more women than men studying at university is affecting the gender balance of some university towns. For example, 52% of Chichester's population is female with a ratio of 30 males to 70 females at its university.

government policies may foster or uppress diversity

• The UK government encouraged people from other countries of the British Empire to migrate to the UK when workers were needed, such as the 'Windrush generation' of Afro-Caribbean immigrants who came to the UK from 1948. This increased diversity.
• The UK's membership of the European Union meant that migration to the UK from European countries increased rapidly following the EU's expansion in 2004.

recent international; immigration has had two phases

• Post-war: The British Nationality Act (1948) gave Commonwealth citizens free access to the
UK. Large numbers moved from the West Indies and from the Indian subcontinent in the 1950s and 1960s.

• EU expansion: Since 2004 and the expansion of the EU to eight new countries, immigration from other EU countries to the UK has increased.
By the end of 2017, 3.8 million people from other EU countries were living in the UK.

changes to culture and society from immigrants

• The most popular destinations for immigrants are London, the South East, the West Midlands, the East Midlands.
• These areas have seen the biggest changes in terms of services and characteristics changing to serve the new residents: for example, shops, places of worship, entertainment, schooling.
• Votes for Brexit were influenced by perceived changes to culture and society.

the london exodus

Currently, around 80000 more people are leaving London per year than moving to it. This is mainly due to the impacts of high house prices in London, although there are also cases of councils moving homeless people out of London to house them in cheaper areas.
• Because house prices in London have been double those in the rest of the country, Londoners have been able to afford better, bigger properties in areas outside the capital.
• On the other hand, 2000 homeless families per year have been forced to move out of London. The families involved often have no connections to these new places: dislocation.

Globalisation has created winners and losers, as shown by widening gaps in development measures and contrasting development trends

migration from the indian subcontinent

Most immigrants from the Indian subcontinent arrived in the 1950s and 1960s.
• These immigrants were from a wide range of different backgrounds, including Sikhs from Punjab, Muslims from Pakistan and what became Bangladesh, and Hindus from western India.
• Many experienced discrimination, including in jobs and housing (which has often continued to this day).
Around 80% of white British people thought there were too many immigrants in 1960s' surveys.

migration from the west indies

The West Indies are over 20 islands in the Caribbean. As part of the common wealth, West Indians were British citizens
• Between 1948 and 1970, nearly 500000 people came to the UK from the West Indies. Many were recruited because of a shortage of workers in the NHS and public transport.
• After changes to the immigration system, some long-term residents of the UK were threatened with deportation back to the West Indies in
2018. This caused a scandal.

migration and rural areas

Some international migrants chose to live in rural areas. An example is Eastern Europeans settling in Boston, Lincolnshire:
• Boston saw its non-UK-born population rise from 1.5% to 11% of the population by 2011, to meet the demand for workers in the surrounding agricultural area.
• Most of the new residents were from Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Romania, who had settled in Boston to work in the surrounding agricultural area.
• In 2016, Boston was unusual in having both high immigration and voting Leave in the Brexit referendum.

challenges and oppertunites for boston lincolnshire

Social Oppurtunities
• The area needs vegetable and flower pickers
• More people created more service jobs
• New shops opened in Boston

Social Challenges
• Pressure on services eg. schools overfull
• Increqsed competition for local jobs
• some immigrants send money home rather than spending it locally

russian oligarch families

Segregation is not always about relative economic and social deprivation. Some Russian super-rich oligarchs have been attracted to Chelsea and South Kensington in London as:
• it is close to the Russian embassy
• has high-end shopping and cultural opportunities
• high-value London property is seen as a safe investment.

south hall

Southall, west London, is home to a Punjabi community of around 35000.
• By 1960, 1000 Punjabis lived in Southall: most working at a local factory whose manager recruited Sikhs because he had served with Sikhs in the Second World War.
• Because their incomes were so low, the first Punjabi immigrants lived in crowded conditions: 20 men in one small house.
• A cinema in the area showed Bollywood films: audiences of 8000 were common.
• New immigrants from Afghanistan and Somalia have moved into the area, while many descendants of the original Punjabi immigrants have moved away.

superpower usa 2015

Economic: GDP per capita: $53000; natural resources; global trade links.
• Military: US military spending accounts for 37% of all military spending in the world.
• Demographic: 45 million migrants live in USA.
• Cultural: 16 of the world's top 20 universities are in the United States. Rich culture: music, film, fast food.

hard and soft power examples

Military power - for example, the USA responded to the 2001 terrorist attack on the USA with a military invasion of Afghanistan, against the Taliban who were supporters of the terrorists.

Economic power - for example, the use of economic sanctions by the USA against countries it considers a threat to its interests, such as Iran.

Hard power was how countries (e.g. Britain) gained dominance in the past, but it is increasingly difficult to achieve global influence through hard power today, as it leads to

roam of british emire

its height, the British Empire extended over about a quarter of the world's land area and ruled a fifth of the world's population.

• Nineteenth-century Britain was the world's leading trading country and the world's first industrialised country, which made it very wealthy.

• Britain invested in its navy until it was the most powerful in the world. Maintaining British sea power was important in keeping countries under British control.

• British colonies often started as trading posts in foreign countries. British forces took direct control over the countries and ran them to protect their trade and make Britain richer.

• British control involved soft power as well as hard power. For example, there were jobs for colonised people in the British administration of their countries. The British introduced sports such as cricket to many colonies, and held tournaments like the Empire Games. British missionaries converted people to Christianity, and especially to the Church of Englana.

cold war

The development of nuclear weapons changed how power was maintained in the Cold War between the
USA and the USSR.

• While only the USA had nuclear weapons, it had ultimate global power (uni-polar). With the detonation of atomic bombs in 1945, the USA ended the war in the Pacific against Japan.

• When the USSR developed nuclear weapons (in 1949), a stalemate quickly developed: if either superpower used them, the other would use them too; both would be destroyed.

• The superpowers developed indirect control over countries instead.

S and W brazil

Strengths

Economic: economy reached
US$ 2.6 trillion in 2010

Economic and demographic: 40 million
Brazilians is a big market

Environmental: environmentally important - Amazon rainforest

Weaknesses

Economic: an economic crisis 2014-17
Saw Brazil's GDP fall by nearly 4%

Political: serious political corruption involving state energy company

Environmental: some politicians want to cut down rainforest to boost development

S and W russia

Military: very strong military, both for conventional and nuclear arms
Economic and political: rich in resources, especially oil and gas
Cultural: effective soft power through
manipulation of social media

Weaknesses

Economic: GDP dependent on oil price:
Russia's GDP shrank from US$2.2 to 1.2 trillion between 2013 and 2018

€ Economic and political: very high inequality

Political: hostility against Russia, including economic sanctions from EU, USA

S and W india

Strengths
- Economic and demographic: huge labour market of 500 million
- Economic: effective training of highly skilled workers, e.g, in IT, finance
- Demographic: youthful population - 54%

Weaknesses
- Economic and political: more than 70% of rural population still live in poverty -Economic: weak infrastructure (roads, rail)
- Environmental and demographic: rapid population growth is causing major environmental damage

S and W china

Strengths
Economic: world's second largest economy in 2018
Economic and political: growth in China lifted 800 million people out of poverty, creating a huge market Economic and demographic: educated population, skilled workforce

Weaknesses
- Economic: growth has slowed from 14% per year in 2007 to around 6%
- Economic and political: inequality between urban and rural China, and developed east and less developed west
- Environmental: air and water pollution

rise of iGO

- Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) were set up as a way of countries coming together to make international decisions.
Our current IGOs developed as a result of the Bretton Woods conference in 1944.

- Bretton Woods was based on the idea that the best way to avoid future wars was to increase economic cooperation between countries, because countries doing well economically did not need to fight wars.

- Bretton Woods also needed to find a way to raise the huge sums of money needed to reconstruct countries damaged by war.

- The conference set up two international organisations: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

World Bank: Provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries.
• IMF: Works to ensure the stability of the international monetary system, facilitates international trade and high employment.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Regulates world trade, helps solve trade disputes and promotes free trade.
• World Economic Forum (WEF): Brings leaders together to try to solve international problem

TNc and global economy

The size of TNCs gives them significant advantages in global trade.
• TNCs locate production in low-wage countries and sales in high-profit markets, making them very successful.
• TNCs are involved in around 80% of all global trade. 30% of this is between TNCs.
• TNCs are important for research and development (RD): around 50% of all global R#D happens in TNCs. This is important for innovation, and helps TNCs to reduce their costs still further.

tnc and patents

• Innovation is protected by the patents system, which registers ideas and allows their inventors to make profits from them for a set period.
• China is now responsible for 40% of all patent applications worldwide.
• Patents protect the large amount of research and development (R$D) done by TNCs.
• Pharmaceutical TNCs rely on payments to use their drug discoveries. The high cost of pharma R#D means high fees are charged to use their products. The fees for some drugs are too high for developing countries to afford.
• The USA has complained about some emerging powers stealing ideas from US-owned TNCs.
This was one of the reasons for a US-China trade war starting in 2018.

ALLIANCES

Military: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) - an alliance of 29 countries: if one member is threatened, the others will come to its aid. Protects the USAs European allies from Russia. Other examples: ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand and United States Security Treaty).

• Economic: EU - a huge single market of 500 million people through which most goods, services, money and people can move freely, integrating 27 member countries in an economic union that has a core of common cultural values, e.g. human rights, rule of law. Also: NAFTA (North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement); ASEAN
Association of South East Asian Nations).

• Environmental: IPCC; part of the UN. It reviews the research of hundreds of climate change scientists, after which representatives of 194 governments meet to agree the wording of a report. In 2018 the IPCC released a report on the global impacts of a rise in temperature of about 1.5°C.

role of the un

The UN was set up to maintain global peace and security by encouraging nations to cooperate in solving international problems.
• The International Court of Justice settles legal disputes between nations.
• The Security Council makes decisions on how to deal with threats to global peace.
• UN peacekeeping missions send troops to conflict regions to help achieve peace.
• UN climate change conferences are held yearly to assess progress in tackling climate change and to negotiate agreements.

willingness to act

Russia contributes approximately 5% of global CO, emissions. It signed the Paris Agreement in 2015, pledging to cut emissions by 30% by 2030. However, by
2018 Russia had not yet ratified its agreement - a second step that commits governments to meeting the targets they agreed in 2015. Unlike Russia, nearly 200 countries have ratified their agreements;
Russia's very powerful oil and gas companies may be part of the reason for Russia's delay here.

willing to act usa

The USA is the world's second largest emitter of CO2
In June 2017, President Trump pulled the USA out of the Paris Agreement, saying that it would be bad for the US economy and for US jobs.
Although President Trump stated his belief that climate change was happening, he was not convinced that human activity is responsible or that the change will not naturally reverse itself.
Widespread international criticism followed the president's decision, and several US states formed their own US Climate Alliance to commit individual states to meeting Paris Agreement objectives.

willingness to act eu

The EU has already reduced COz emissions by 22% between 1990
and 2016. This put the EU's member countries on track to meet their 2030 Paris Agreement target of a 40% reduction in emissions from 1990 levels. The EU has passed laws to increase the share of energy production from renewable sources and has set its member countries targets to increase energy efficiency (for example, home insulation). New cars and vans made in the EU must also hit new targets for lower CO, emissions.

tensions in the south china sea

• China has set up a military base on the Spratly Islands, which are claimed by six different countries. The Philippines pays some of its citizens to live on the islands.
• There are large reserves of fossil fuels around the Spratly Islands, and this is also a key strategic location: 30% of the world's trade passes through this region.
• China has also installed surface-to-air missiles in the Paracel archipelago, possibly in response to US military presence in the Philippines. The US Navy sees this area as in its sphere of influence and contests China's claims.

tensions in the east china sea

China and Japan are in dispute over the Senkakus. There are oil and gas reserves under the seabed in this region, as well as rich fishing grounds. Japanese and Chinese fishing boats have clashed in this area.

russia and conflict in the ukraine

After the USSR collapsed in 1991, Ukraine became independent and factions within it made moves towards closer ties with the EU.
• This was humiliating for Russia, which had always seen Ukraine as being within its sphere of influence.
• Following the overthrow of a pro-Russian president in Ukraine in 2014, Russia staged a military intervention there. There was conflict between western Ukraine (EU-supporting) and eastern Ukraine (Russian-supporting).
• Russian troops took control of the Crimea in Ukraine. The Crime is now treated by Russia as being an independent state within the Russian federation.

example of economic ties china

Between 2000 and 2014, China invested $86 billion in 3000 projects in African nations. Three reasons for Chinese investment are:

To secure raw materials for Chinese industries: Africa is resource-rich (for example, 90% of global platinum and cobalt supplies and 75% of coltan, which is used in mobile phones). A third of China's investments are in mining.

To develop African countries as a market for Chinese products. Many African nations are seeing rapid economic growth.

To increase China's global political influence.
Investments in military technology and infrastructure gives China significant influence over these African countries.

chinas influence

China's 'Belt and Road' initiative is a
Contexts
$1 trillion infrastructure project to improve trade routes between China and 70 other countries in Asia, Africa and Europe.
The initiative increases China's soft power influence across these three regions.
• China's investment in its military also increases its influence in Asia and globally.
China is now second only to the USA in its military spending.
• However, China has not taken up leading roles in military interventions or peacekeeping missions, for example in Syria.

Regional tensions
• China has internal tensions with regional connections: there are independence movements in Tibet and Xinjiang.
• In the South China Sea, China has increased tensions with its artificial islands and claims over disputed areas.

india’s influence

Lying between China and east Asia,
central Asia and the Middle East, India has a strategic geopolitical location.
• It is by some measures the world's third largest economy, overtaking Japan.
• The USA has found India a useful ally in its long war against the Taliban in Afghanistan.
• Both China and Japan are also keen to strengthen links with India, whose rate of economic growth is faster than China's.
• However, India's political focus is most often fixed on its own internal divisions. This may limit its geopolitical influence.

Regional tensions
• India and Pakistan have a hostile relationship, which has escalated into war four times.
• India is strengthening relations with neighbouring countries (such as Bangladesh) in response to China's growing regional influence.

bolivia alternative development

In 2009 Bolivia introduced a new constitution that recognised that the Earth is a dynamic, interconnected living system and put nature first. This was partly a response to the impacts of climate change but also from the Amerindian spiritual view. However, this type of development has experienced problems, such as lack of political support to stop impacts of mining, and no economic support for
ecological practices (2010 HDI rank = 95 (0.649); 2017 = 118 (0.693)).

contrasting views of economic development

AL: Improve environmental quality
Natural systems provide resources or services to keep people healthy, but economic growth damages the natural environment through pollution and degradation. A tipping point comes when it is realised that conserving the natural environment is essential. The wealth from economic growth can be used to develop eco-friendly lifestyles and technologies, and invest in protected areas.

GOAL: Improve health of population
Developing countries experience higher mortality rates than economically developed countries because people are more vulnerable to disease and the state of the natural environment. Economic growth enables investment in health care (infrastructure and personnel) and the ability to afford and provide medicines.

GOAL: Improve life expectancy
Developing countries usually have shorter life expectancies because of hardships (e.g. harsh natural environments, disease). With economic growth people can afford better housing and amenities, and machinery to reduce physical labour. Governments can afford to provide services (e.g. clean water).

UNESCO

UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) believes that education is the main driver of development, is a fundamental right and helps to achieve gender equality.

brazil life expectancy and health discrimination

• Life expectancy is highest (around 77 years) in the south-east of Brazil, from the capital district (Brasilia) to the Atlantic coast and southwards to Rio Grande do Sul. It is lowest (around 70 years) in the north-east (e.g. Maranhão), and some of the remoter border regions to the west, such as Rondônia.
• People in remoter regions feel that there is more discrimination in the health service, while people in regions with big cities in the south-east (e.g. São Paulo) feel least discrimination. It is more economic
disparity in provision.
to provide health services where there are many people, and more difficult in remote areas, so there is a
• Climate also has an influence, because the north-east of Brazil is semi-arid, creating difficult living conditions, while the south-east is subtropical.

IGO influences

• Since 1945 the main IGOs have emphasised economic development (for example, IMF, WTO), with financial systems designed to help countries through stages of economic development and boost world trade. However, there are problems of debt and lack of fair trade.
• Since the late 20th century there has been increasing emphasis on human welfare. The UNDP emphasises economic development leading to social development, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) promotes food security, the WHO promotes the eradication of diseases, and UNICEF promotes the human rights of children. The UNDP has set targets for health, education and welfare.

mdg

MDG1: The number of people in extreme poverty fell to 14%, but there were still over 800 million in this category. The number of undernourished people fell by about 13%. Targets were not met in sub-Saharan Africa and western Asia.
MDG2: Primary school enrolment reached 91%, but 57 million were still not attending, with inequality for girls.
MDG3: Equality for women improved but parity was not reached, especially in Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa.
MDG4: Child mortality halved and vaccinations were more widespread, but many world regions missed their targets.
MDG5: Maternal mortality declined by about 36% and more pre- and antenatal care was available, but no world region met its target.
MDG6: Incidence of malaria was reduced by 37% and mortality from TB fell by 45%, but other diseases (e.g. Ebola) still posed a threat.
MDG7: Protected land areas increased, some pollution types decreased, but greenhouse gases and degradation increased. Clean water an sanitation improved, but targets were not met in Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa.

sdg

SDG2: The proportion of undernourished people increased between 2015 and 2016 by 38 million due to conflicts and climate change impacts.
SDG3: Cases of malaria increased by 6 million between 2013 and 2016, but child mortality and incidence of disease continue to decrease.
SDG4: In 2016 85% of primary school teachers in the world were trained compared with only 71% in South Asia and 61% in sub-Saharan Africa.
Only 40% of primary schools in developing countries had basic handwashing facilities.
SDG6: In 2017 only 59% of transboundary river basins were covered by agreements.
SDG7: In 2016 41% of the world's population was using polluting fuels at home, but more people in developing countries had access to electricity.
SDG8: Young people were three times more likely to be unemployed than adults in 2017.
SDG11: In 2016 91% of the global population experienced air quality below WHO guidelines.
SDG16: Over 1000 human rights workers were killed across 61 countries between 2015 and 2018.

asia pacific world region

13 of 21 MDGs were met by 2015. Key successes:
Poverty fell to 12% of the population, with all but two countries halving their poverty rate.
People without access to clean water fell to 7%.
All primary school-aged children completed school, with equal parity for boys and girls.
However:
Infant and child mortality reductions failed to hit targets.
Further improvements are needed in sanitation and food supply for children.
In the most deprived countries, progress towards MDGs was rapid in 15 indicators (for example, health care, safe drinking water) but slow in six (for example, basic sanitation, child mortality).

indonesia failed to meet three indicators

Indonesia failed to meet three indicators
(HIV prevalence, forest cover, carbon emissions), and made slower progress towards child malnutrition, infant mortality, basic sanitation and primary school enrolment, but all others were achieved. The early information on SDGs shows that Indonesia has only 1.5% of the poorest population quintile covered by social insurance programmes, infant mortality rate is falling (22.2/000 live births in 2016), and the native parity ratio in education was only 0.44 at lower secondary school level in 2015.

eropean curt of human rights

The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) was established in 1950 to maintain human rights and the fundamental freedoms across Europe as a whole,
and is based on the UDHR. It now has 47 signatory ci countries, which base their own laws on it. It has 59 articles and a variety of protocols, on which the ECHR passes judgements on cases brought to it.

geneva coventions]

The four Geneva Conventions (1949) and protocols (1977, 2005) are international treaties providing rules for armed conflict situations, protecting civilians, medical staff, those wounded and prisoners.
Breaches of the GC are investigated and people brought to justice, but the process is very complicated and may involve the UN Security Council and UN peacekeeping forces.
There has been controversy because of:
- inconsistencies in dealing with breaches
- several countries are still using torture or causing genocide of minorities
- the large numbers of refugees and asylum seekers
- few cases actua

development over hr

Developing countries that become democratic are expected to promote human rights, but these young democracies are often 'flawed' and prioritise economic development and internal security, which may infringe the rights of some people (for example logging in indigenous areas in Brazil).
• Former colony countries (such as Zimbabwe) may wish to show their political independence by making their own decisions, rather than having international human rights directives imposed upon them; some (such as India) may be struggling to eradicate human rights infringements within their own country.
• People within a country may also reluctantly accept some human rights abuses if they perceive that economic development is worth it.

canada

A 2017 survey ranked Canada as the 2nd most caring of human rights (after Sweden). Human rights are promoted by the government and all suspicions of human rights abuses are investigated; the government has its own human rights sections and recognises and uses Canadian and international human rights groups. Laws protect its indigenous peoples, and it has made compensation payments to them. Canada is also generous in taking asylum seekers (e.g. Chechens facing violence from Russia).
But a balance between using resources and avoiding conflict is difficult to achieve.

indonesia

GDP per capita increased from $780 to $3847 between 2000 and 2017, so economic progress has been prioritised. A 2015 US government report showed that alleged human rights abuses were not being investigated, there were instances of torture, and laws were being used to restrict freedom of speech.
In Aceh province Sharia law exists, where people are publicly caned and humiliated. The police and army often forcibly break up protests, and in Papua and West Papua provinces, which have resources, there are conflicts over indigenous rights.

flawed democracy

57 countries
44.8% of world population
ARGENTINA
Basic civil liberties respected; elections generally free, but some 'free speech' restrictions and detentions. Legal action against some previous corrupt leaders. Government issues include activities of police, violence against women, blocking indigenous people's rights. Ranked 28/80 for citizenship in 2018 with a 'cares about human rights' score of 1.6/10, Media Freedom index of 8/10 (partly free).flawe

hybrid regime

39 countries
- 16.7% of the world's population
- Kenya
Elections problematic, legally and poorly administered with many irregularities, pressure on opposition candidates, violence. Widespread corruption, weak rule of law and civil society. Judiciary and media not independent. Country's human rights commission repressed. Ranked 59/80 for citizenship in 2018 with a 'cares about human rights' score of 0.5/10, Media Freedom index of 6/10 (largely unfree).

authoritarian regime

52 countries

34.0% of world population

KAZAKHSTAN

Dictatorship; government institutions have little substance. No free and fair elections.
Disregard of civil liberties. State control of media and judiciary; trade unions and government criticism repressed. Journalists attacked, some detainees tortured. Human rights groups fined and activists imprisoned. Ranked 68/80
for citizenship in 2018 with a cares about human rights' score of 0.5/10, and Media Freedom index
1/10 (unfree).