Learning - SACE Psychology

Learning

the process which leads to a change in behaviour as a result of acquiring knowledge skills through experience, or being taught

Classical Conditioning

the forming of associations between two stimuli that are normally unrelated

Stimulus

a pattern of energy that can be detected by an organisms' receptors, OR an action or event that causes a response

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Any stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring, involuntary response (e.g. salivating over food)

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented (involuntary response)

Pavlov

Behaviorist who found that dogs learned to link sound with food, and then their response to food was seen when just exposed to the sound.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Extinction

Disappearance of the conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

Stimulus generalisation

The tendency for another similar stimulus to also produce the conditioned response

Stimulus discrimination

Occurs when an organism responds to the CS but NOT to a stimulus similar to the CS

Contiguity

The more closely together (contiguous) in space or time two items occur, the more likely will the thought of one item lead to the thought of the other: 1/2 second is ideal

Contingency

One behaviour is dependent on another e.g. CR is dependent on the UCS and CS being preceding the behaviour. In operant conditioning learning is dependent on the reward or punishment following the behaviour

Operant condition

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Skinner

Behaviorist-Proposed theory of operant conditioning with skinner box experiment, reinforcing rats behavior with rewards or punishments

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by the removal, reduction or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus

Shaping

A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and leads to the desired response (method of successive approximations). Used widely in animal training for small successive steps

Punishment

Any stimulus that is unpleasant and which generally decreases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring

Effective punishment

Appropriate punisher - needs to actually punish, not be pleasant, needs to be immediate or as soon as possible after the behaviour and consistency

Effective reinforcement

Appropriate reinforcer, timing (needs to be immediate or as soon as possible after the behaviour) and consistency

Fixed interval schedule

reinforcement delivered after a fixed time (10 seconds)

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement delivered after fixed number of correct responses

Variable interval schedule

reinforcement occurs on an average time interval (4 - 16 seconds)

Variable ratio schedule

reinforcement occurs on the basis of an average number of correct responses (on average after 10 responses, could be 2nd - 18th) - Poker Machine

Observational learning

occurs when someone uses observation of another person's actions and their consequences to guide their future actions

Bandura

His studies show that we learn a great deal of behaviour by observing others and by noting the consequences of their behaviour. Known for his Bo-Bo clown doll experiment

ARRM Model

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Reinforcement

Attention

Pay attention in order to observe the modelled behaviour

Retention

Mentally represent and retain what has been observed

Reproduction

Convert these mental representations of observations into actions (i.e. reproduce them)

Motivation

Reinforcement influences the learner's motivation to perform the learned behaviour. Reinforcement is the key link between observational learning and conditioning

Systematic Desensitisation

Helps remove phobias. Identify a hierarchy of fears from most feared to least feared (e.g. being bitten by a bee, touching a bee, touching a dead bee, seeing a bee in a jar, seeing a bee fly around in the distance). Learn relaxation strategies such as deep breathing. Begin to pair (either real or in your imagination) the least feared situation with the relaxation technique and move through the hierarchy in slow steps.

Behaviour modification

Uses positive reinforcement and withdrawal of reinforcement in order to eliminate inappropriate behaviour or teach new responses
1. Identifying the bad behaviour (create a baseline)
2. Choosing a realistic goal to work towards (holding trolley in the supermarket)
3. Setting up reinforcement with rules for when the child can be rewarded (e.g. 1-hour study = reinforcer) Starting the program and rewarding the small steps - good for 10 minutes, then 30, then whole shopping trip
4. Reduce rewards over time

Animal ethics

No undue distress or harm, should not change natural or habitual behaviour, ensure they have comfortable surroundings and company of other animals

Subjective Quantitative measures

rating scales, observations made of behaviour