Cambridge English A Terminology #3

Intensifier

A word/adjective/adverb which has little meaning by itself but is used to add force to other phrases; Provides emotion and intensifies. Examples include 'really,' 'very,' etc.

Obsolete

In language, relates to words that are no longer in use and no longer understood.

Active voice

Where the subject of a verb is performing the action involved (e.g. She won the race).

Passive voice

Where the subject receives the action of a verb (e.g. The ball was kicked)

Sentence

A set of words that is grammatically complete, consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more additional subordinate clauses.

E.g. When it started to rain (subordinate clause), I went home and studied for an hour (main clause with subject, verb, and predicate).

Phrase

A group of words that do not constitute a complete sentence (e.g. running back home).

Subordination

Connecting two or more clauses, only one of which is independent. Consists of subordinate clauses, including because, while, as, etc.

Clause

Part of a sentence, containing (at least) a subject and a verb phrase (e.g. I ran home).

Coordination

Connecting two or more independent clauses through the use of coordinating conjunctions (use FANBOYS - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Noun phrase

A word (or group of words working together) which names a person, place or thing (e.g. the tall boy).

Head word

The main word in a phrase (e.g. the noun boy in the noun phrase the happy boy)

Adjunct

An optional or less-important part of a clause or sentence (e.g. in the sentence I dropped the glass on the floor, the phrase on the floor is a(n) ________).

Object

The thing or person acted upon by the subject (e.g. in the sentence The girl ate the meal, the meal, the phrase the meal would be the _).

Analogy

A comparison of two things which have some element of similarity, which is used to help clarify an issue or idea.

Anaphoric Reference

Where a word refers back to an earlier part of a text for its meaning (e.g. I recognised David immediately, though I hadn't seen him, my oldest friend (this phrase is the _), in years).

Mode

The format through which ideas or content are communicated to an audience. They may include spoken (a conversation/spontaneous speech), written (novel/leaflet text), electronic (email/blog), and image (photo), and can be combined in a variety of mixed types (prepared speech/podcast).

Asynchronous Communication

Where the medium of communication causes a delay between utterance and response (e.g. letter, email, online forum)

Cataphoric reference

Where a word refers to a later part of a text for its meaning (e.g. in the following text, the underlined words refer cataphorically to 'Sarah': Although I had not seen her in years, I recognised my old friend Sarah immediately.)

Computer-mediated Discourse

The specialist form of language between online users.

Deixis

Language whose meaning is determined in part by contextual factors, such as who is using it, when, where and to whom (e.g. this, that, now, you, tomorrow)

Personification

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. This motif is used to make these abstractions, animal,. or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

Point of View

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told.

(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.
(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:
a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters
b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that this term carries an additional meaning. Addressing the author's attitude is equivalent to addressing this motif used by the author.

Pun

A play on words, which either plays on multiple meanings of a word or replaces the word with another that is similar in sound but very different in meaning.

Assonance

A subset of repetition: this is the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in a sequence of words. The repetition occurs in the stressed syllables and the vowel sound is followed by different consonant sounds. The effect of this is euphony. It is a type of repetition.

Consonance

A subset of repetition: this is the repetition of identical consonant sounds in words in close proximity, as in boost/best, linger/longer/later; it can also be seen within several compound words, such as fulfill and ping-pong. It is a form of repetition.

Symbol

The use of one object to represent or suggest another. It is something that is itself and yet stands for, suggests, or means something else. It tends to be more singular, a bit more fixed than imagery.

Phallic Symbol

A sexualised representation of male potency, power, or domination, representing male reproductive objects. For example, sticks, staves, swords, clubs, towers, trees, rockets, and missiles all fall under this category.

Yonic Symbol

A sexualised representation of femininity of reproductive power, through an object representing female organs. Cups, cauldrons, and goblets are all examples of _. An example is in Sonnet 154: 'This brand, she quenched in a cool well by, / which from Love's fire took heat perpetual.'

Tone

The characteristic emotion or attitude of an author toward the characters, subject, and audience. Some words describing this are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber. This technique is important because it designates the mood and effect of a work. Similar to mood, it describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. It is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. To identify how an author uses this motif, a student might consider how a work would sound if it were read aloud.

Satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. It can be recognised by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of this motif are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good form of this technique, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
E.g. "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and isn't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" (Chap 16) Huckleberry Finn