Chapter 3: Explaining Crime — Comprehensive Notes/Flashcards

A comprehensive set of practice Q&A flashcards covering classical, neoclassical, positivist, biological, psychological, sociological, and critical theories of crime, including key theorists, concepts, and policy implications from the lecture notes.

What is criminological theory?

The explanation of criminal behavior as well as the behavior of the actors in the criminal justice system (police, attorneys, prosecutors, judges, corrections, victims, and others).

Who wrote An Essay on Crimes and Punishments and helped establish classical criminological theory?

Cesare Beccaria.

What is the principle of utility in Beccaria’s theory?

The idea that laws and punishments should provide the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

What is the social contract in classical theory?

An imaginary agreement to sacrifice the minimum amount of liberty necessary to prevent anarchy and chaos.

What is general deterrence?

Deterring society at large from crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them.

Name four Beccarian recommendations to deter crime.

Enact clear, simple, unbiased laws; educate the public; eliminate corruption in justice administration; reward virtue.

What are the main real-world drawbacks of classical theory?

Not all offenders are alike; juveniles are treated as adults; crimes aren’t always similar; first-time offenders treated like repeat offenders; the insane treated the same as the sane; crime of passion treated like intentional crime.

What characterizes neoclassical theory?

Modification of classical theory recognizing that insanity may inhibit free will; introduces premiditation as a measure of free will and legitimizes mitigating circumstances.

What is the basis of the classical and neoclassical theory in the U.S. criminal justice system?

They form the basis of the system, with rational choice and deterrence concepts; classical theory fell out of favor due to perceived ineffectiveness of punishment.

What are the key assumptions of the positivist school?

Human behavior is determined, criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals, social scientists can be objective, crime is caused by multiple factors, and society is based on consensus but not a social contract.

What are common criticisms of positivist criminology?

It accounts for too much crime and fails to explain exceptions; it ignores how behaviors are made illegal; assumes universal agreement on right and wrong; denies free will; questions objectivity.

What is criminological biology (biological positivism) mainly about?

The idea that criminals are physiologically different from noncriminals, though modern biocriminology emphasizes differences without value judgments.

Who is associated with criminal anthropology and what is the core claim?

Cesare Lombroso; criminals are born a distinct type identifiable by physical characteristics (stigmata).

What are some stigmata Lombroso proposed?

Enormous jaws, high cheekbones, insensitivity to pain.

What is the major critique of Lombroso’s theory?

Physical stigmata indicate predisposition, not cause; criminals may be atavists or degenerate; the theory incorrectly links biology to criminality.

What are the three basic somatotypes in body-type theory?

Endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic.

What did William Sheldon find about delinquents in relation to body type?

Delinquents tended to be more mesomorphic than nondelinquents.

What do heredity studies in crime examine?

Family trees, twin studies (identical vs fraternal), and adopted children to assess hereditary factors.

List some modern biological factors linked to crime.

Dietary deficiencies, high sugar intake, hypoglycemia, allergies, dyes/lead exposure, radiation exposure, brain dysfunctions.

What is the limbic system’s role related to violence?

It moderates expressions of violence (anger, rage, fear, sexual response) and controls life functions like heartbeat, breathing, and sleep.

Which brain areas are associated with the limbic system?

Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, pituitary.

What neurotransmitter is often low in impulsive violent offenders?

Serotonin.

What neurotransmitter is associated with compulsive gambling when at low levels?

Norepinephrine.

How does cocaine affect brain chemistry in relation to crime?

Cocaine increases dopamine, which activates the limbic system to produce pleasure.

Which hormones are discussed in relation to criminal behavior?

Testosterone; estrogen and progesterone (female hormones); estrogen used to reduce sexual drive in male sex offenders.

What is the modern view on biology and environment in crime causation?

Criminal behavior results from a complex interaction between biology and environmental or social conditions.

What are the main psychological theories of crime mentioned?

Intelligence and crime; Psychoanalytic theories; Humanistic psychology.

What did the 1931 study find about intelligence and crime?

No general correlation between intelligence and criminality (though intelligence may play a role in individual cases).

What do psychoanalytic theories propose about crime?

Crime may be a symptom of deeper-seated problems; psychopaths lack guilt and a functioning conscience.

Who are psychopaths or sociopaths according to psychoanalytic theory?

Individuals with no sense of guilt or conscience, lacking empathy, difficult to form relationships.

What are some characteristic traits of a psychopath (as per Cleckley’s list)?

Superficial charm, unreliability, lack of remorse, insincerity, poor judgment, lack of empathy, impulsivity (summarized traits from the table).

What are common problems with psychological theories of crime?

Most criminals are not more psychologically disturbed than others; disturbances exist in noncriminals too; ignores environment; difficult to test scientifically.

What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs propose in the context of crime?

People crime because they cannot legally satisfy their basic needs; there are five levels: physiological, safety, belongingness/love, esteem, self-actualization.

What are the five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy from bottom to top?

Physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization.

What do sociological theories emphasize about crime causation?

Crime is shaped by social environment and structures; rejects the notion of born criminals; emphasizes social factors.

What is Durkheim’s concept of anomie?

A state where the individual is dissociated from the collective conscience; crime is a social fact and can serve a function in society.

What is the Chicago School’s ecological view of cities?

Cities grow through invasion, domination, and succession; crime rates are linked to neighborhood social structure and disorganization.

What is social disorganization theory?

High delinquency correlates with lack of social controls, weak norms, and limited legitimate opportunities within a neighborhood.

What are the potential problems with the Chicago School’s view on disorganization?

Disorganization may be caused by political/economic elites’ decisions, not just neighborhood factors.

What is Merton’s anomie theory?

A mismatch between cultural goals and institutional means creates strain; adaptations include conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion.

What did Cohen contribute to anomie theory in relation to gangs?

Adolescents unable to achieve status through conventional means may conform or rebel and form subcultures (gangs) with their own values.

What did Cloward and Ohlin add to anomie theory?

Illegitimate opportunity structures lead to three delinquent subcultures: Criminal, Violent, Retreatist.

What is differential association theory and who proposed it?

Criminal behavior is learned through contact with criminal definitions; proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland (building on Tarde).

What are the core concepts of learning theory in crime?

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and modeling/imitation.

How does learning theory view the persistence of criminal behavior?

Criminal behavior is reinforced; extinction and punishment reduce it, but environments may continue to reward crime if prosocial alternatives aren’t reinforced.

What are the policy implications of learning theory?

Punish criminal behavior effectively; address inconsistent punishment; ensure immediate and certain consequences; provide positive reinforcement for prosocial behavior.

What is the central idea of social control theory?

Delinquency is unlikely if individuals have strong social bonds; Hirschi identifies attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief as key bonds.

What does Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory propose?

The principal cause of deviant behaviors is low self-control resulting from ineffective child-rearing.

What do critical theories emphasize about society?

Society is shaped by conflict among groups; human institutions are created to dominate and constrain individuals; focus on power and morality.

What is labeling theory’s main focus?

The criminalization process and the impact of labeling on individuals; labels can become self-fulfilling prophecies.

What are some policy implications of labeling theory?

Decriminalization, diversion, greater due-process protections, deinstitutionalization, and reintegrative shaming.

What does conflict theory say about law and power?

Criminal law and the justice system are tools of dominant groups to control subordinate groups; crime reflects power differentials.

How does radical theory define crime?

As a violation of human rights, linked to capitalism and exploitation; excludes some behaviors (e.g., prostitution, gambling, drug use) from that definition.

What are some key ideas of British left realism?

Focus on crime by and against the working class; call for more police power but with accountability; address fear and victimization of the working class.

What is peacemaking criminology's basic premise?

Reducing suffering, transforming humans, promoting mutual dependence, reducing class structures, and pursuing universal social justice to reduce crime.

What does feminist theory examine in crime and justice?

Women’s experiences, victimization, gender differences in crime, and gendered justice; aim to abolish patriarchy, with critiques about differences among women and police views.

What is postmodernism’s view on knowledge and law?

Knowledge is socially constructed and contextual; laws and interpretations depend on social context; advocates informal social controls and critiques universal narratives.