AP Euro Unit 1 Test

Joan of Arc

Deeply religious girl. Came to Charles VII and claimed to have heard the voices of saints ordering her to save Orleans. Fought in the Hundred Years War and helped the French. Captured by the English. Burned as a heretic.

Wars of the Roses

English aristocratic families (with their armies) fighting other families for control. Lancaster vs York. Henry Tudor wins (Henry VII). Tudor dynasty begins in England.

Holy Roman Empire

Large, powerful kingdom with territory throughout central Europe

Spanned from the North and Baltic Seas to the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas and from Bohemia to Burgundy

Emperor Charles IV (1355-1378)

Occupied almost entirely by Germanic people

Decentralized

Emperor Charles IV

• Passed the Golden Bull

• Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

• Turned Prague into a cultural center

• Fostered a literary and artistic Renaissance

• Gave up political power as Emperor

Golden Bull

• Edict passed by Emperor Charles IV

• Holy Roman Emperor chosen by seven great princes of the empire without consultation with the pope

• Reduced power of emperor

Black Death/ Plague

• Virulent combination of pneumonia, bubonic plague, septicemia

• Killed a third to one half of European population

• Loss of social and moral codes

• Created a labor surplus

• Infrastructure fell apart as farming, manufacturing went dormant

Jacquerie

• Labor surplus led to higher wages for peasants

• Nobles, aristocracy did not want to pay more, demanded pre-plague wages

• Local nobles, French king increase taxes, local demands

• Peasants revolt, not chivalric in nature

• Anticlerical (attacked church structure)

• Ended by completed dissection of French Army

Etienne Marcel

• Wealthy Parisian cloth merchant

• Angered with the French aristocracy, elite

• Wanted to control French finances and fiscal reforms

• Followers included merchants, guild elite, and peasants

• Ended by complete force of the French Army

Hanseatic League

Monopolized northern grain trade along Baltic Coast

League had rights to export Scandinavian fish throughout Europe

Influx of Baltic Grain sent Europe into a 200+ year depression

Avignon

• Clement V (1305-1314) moved papacy to Avignon in 1305 from Rome

• Under French control

• Home of papacy from 1305-1377

• Papacy concentrated on legal and fiscal reforms

• Led to Great Schism

Indulgences

• Pope transfers positive balance to sinners in return for pious acts including contributing money to church

• Could be purchased for ones own use or to assist souls of family members in purgatory

• Major source of church's revenue

benefices

• Second source of major revenue, especially for Papal income

• B/c Popes could appoint bishops/other leaders they would also collect taxes for such appointments

• Benefices are Church offices

• Encouraged pluralism: individuals could acquire many benefices

Great Schism

• 1377: Pope Gregory XI returned papacy to Rome; died immediately after

• Italians surrounded church demanding Italian Pope

• Cardinals elected Urban VI who insulted all Italian Cardinals; Cardinals claim election null-and-void, elect Clement VII who takes up residence at Avignon

• Church has two Popes

• Great Schism created many questions: "Where do taxes go, where do appointments come from?"

• Divided Europe

Conciliarism

• Idea that a church council could end schism

• Popes disliked b/c it suggested that an assembly of the Church had more power than the Pope

• At first worsened situation, electing a third Pope

Council of Constance

• Held from 1414 to 1418

• Under Emperor-Elect Sigismund, cardinals, bishops, abbots, and theologians from across Europe met to resolve the Great Schism

• Idea that Popes power could be controlled through frequent councils

• Ends multiplicity of Papal office

• Elected the impartial Pope, Martin V, ends schism

Witches Hammer

• Handbook for hunting witches, including procedures to induce their confessions

• Written by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger

• Natural disasters such as plague and human disasters promoted fear of witchcraft, "witches" were blamed for troubles

• Accused witches were most commonly women on the margins of society

• Started witch hunting craze

John Wycliffe

• 1330-1384

• Unorthodox Christian who questioned the church's right to wealth

• Said that the value of ideals depended on the worthiness of the priest

• Protected by secular lords and followers in England

• Held ideas such as that Christ was present in Eucharist only in spirit, indulgences were useless and predestination was more important individual merit

Lollards

• Followers of John Wycliffe

• Weren't suppressed until Henry V took power

• Support made Wycliffe popular and protected him from persecution

Jan Hus

• Leading teacher of Wycliffe's ideas in Prague, rejected his ideas about priests

• Demanded reform of church's morals

• Led attack on German dominance in Bohemia

• Followers were called "Hussites"

• Excommunicated by Pope John XXIII

• Burned at the stake for heresy by the Council of Constance

• His execution caused revolt in Bohemia

• Martin Luther a follower

William of Ockham

• Defended radical poverty- was excommunicated by Pope John XXIII

• Said that church couldn't be based on logic, must be believed

• Nominalism—denied reason could lead to truth

• Believed that the church shouldn't have a role in the government

• Denied absolute authority of the pope

• Church should have elected officials

• Defended radical poverty

Nominalism

• Doctrine of William of Ockham

• Stated that reason could not lead to truth

• Focused on names given to things rather than reality

• Belief that philosophical speculation was essentially logical, linguistic exercise, not a way to certain knowledge

Dante Alighieri

• An Italian poet

• Wrote The Divine Comedy—a poem

• About hell, purgatory, and heaven

• Reflected his views on politics through his poetry

• Advanced writer for his time

• Made Italian a literary language

The Divine Comedy

• A poem by Dante Alighieri

• Divided into three parts—journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven

• Summary of good and bad in politics and culture in medieval times

• View of the whole Christian universe

• Written in the last years of Dante's life

Geoffrey Chaucer

• An English author and poet

• His work weaved together a spectrum of late medieval literature and life

• His most famous work is Canterbury Tales

• Greatest English author before Shakespeare

The Canterbury Tales

• Written by Geoffrey Chaucer

• Involved characters from every spectrum of medieval society and every walk of life

• Drawn from folklore, Italian literature, lives of Saints, courtly romance, and religious sermons

• Used characters to comment on social, religious, and political life during the later Middle Ages

Christine de Pisan

• First woman to make a living writing

• Wrote conventional love poems and autobiographical poems

• Wrote Hymn to Joan of Arc

• Fought against medieval stereotypes of women

• Opened up new possibilities for women

• Brought dignity to women, strived for justice and for peace in France

Hundred Years War

• Three main causes were the fight over Gascony, Flemish- cloth town revolts, and the dispute over the heir to the French throne.

• Underlying cause is chivalry

• English successes early on due to a more tactical leader (Edward III)

• Salvation of France comes with Joan of Arc and gunpowder

• Resulted in the English War of the Roses, higher taxes, and Italian banks bankrupted

Renaissance

• Rebirth of thinking and renewed fascination of the Classical world

• Emphasis on humanity

• An era of rapid transitions

• Three distinct phases (1350 - 1550)

- First: decline in population, uncovering of classical texts, experimentation with art forms.

- Second: artistic and literary achievements.

- Third: invasion from France and Spain transformed Italian political life, ideas from Italian writers and artists spread across Europe

Petrarch

• Father of humanism

• Italian poet

• Denounced the Babylonian captivity of the papacy

• Considered church leaders as poor examples, saw them as materialistic

• Among the first to differentiate the new age of the Renaissance

• "Christ is my God; Cicero is the prince of the language I use."

Brunelleschi

• Architect and engineer

• One of the three Florentine Renaissance masters

• Recombined basic elements of Gothic architecture with classical structures, based designs on geometric principles

• First Renaissance artist to understand and make use of perspective

• Greatest work was the dome on the Cathedral in Florence

Donatello

• Florentine master, interested in nude artwork

• Revived the freestanding and equestrian statues

• Translated classical styles into naturalistic forms

• Use of linear perspective

• Well-known for his bronze statue of David

Massaccio

• Florentine master, extremely influential paintings

• Used inspiration of the Ancients to emphasize nature and perspective

• Famous frescoes and was praised for his naturalism

• Best known works:

- The Expulsion of Adam and Eve(1425)

- The Holy Trinity

Leon Batista Alberti

• Scholar, artist, architect, mathematician, poet, playwright, musician and inventor

• Wrote "On Architecture", and "4 Books on the Family".

• "4 Books on the Family" about raising children, choosing wives, and managing domestic affairs

• Employed by the Papal Court

• Showed classical form can be applied to traditional spaces

Sandro Botticelli

• Florentine painter

• Mythologies depart from naturalism of the time

• Painted Birth of Venus and Goddess of Love

• Paintings concerned beauty and personality

Piero della Francesca

• Italian Renaissance artist and mathematician

• First to challenge Donatello

• Trained in the tradition of Masaccio

• Focused on visual unity in his paintings

• Concentrated on technical aspects of composition

• Well-known for his fresco The Resurrection (1463)

Leonardo da Vinci

• The epitome of the Renaissance Man

• Image of Renaissance

• Detailed anatomical drawings, engineered inventions, painted using science and math

• Well-known for his works Mona Lisa(1503 - 1506), The Last Supper and La Gioconda

• Recorded detailed anatomical drawings of body

Michelangelo

• Paintings and sculptures used classical style

• Very popular in Rome

• Well-known for his work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the dome of St. Peter, Creation of Man, his sculpture of David, and the Pieta

• He claimed to have imbibed his love of sculpture from the milk of his wet nurse, who was the wife of a stonecutter

Lorenzo de' Medici

• Head of Medici Family

• Diplomat

• Held strong humanist values

• Grandson of Cosimo de Medici

• Spread artistic creativity in Florence

humanism

• First popularized in Renaissance Italy

• Secular in outlook, but not anti-religious

• Focused on philology and rhetoric

• Reacted strongly against scholasticism

• Celebrated worldly achievements

• Civic humanists saw their studies as a means of improving themselves and their societies

• Christian humanists applied their techniques to the study of the authorities and texts of the church

Pico della Mirandola

• Renaissance author

• Influenced by Plato

• Oration on the Dignity of Man

• Believed that people determined their own fate

Lorenzo Valla

• Influential humanist, studied in Philology

• Incorporated humanism and liberal arts into politics

• Proved that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery through application of philology and therefore proved all papal claims based upon it were without merit

Leonardo Bruni

• Leader of the humanist movement after Petrarch

• Stressed the importance of the works of Cicero, Plato, and Aristotle

• Considered greatest Greek scholar of his day

Philology

• The study of words, their meaning, and their grammatical structure

• A leading concern of humanists

• Lorenzo Valla

Baldesar Castiglione

• 1478-1529

• Wrote "The Courtier" in 1516

• Prominent author during the Renaissance

Niccolo Machiavelli

• Wrote "The Prince" and "Discourses on Livy, published after his death

• Father of modern political theory

The Courtier

• An etiquette book for aristocratic men

• Published in 1516

• Written by Baldesar Castiglione

The Prince

• Written by Niccolo Machiavelli

• Advice to monarchs on how to use and maintain their power over the people

• Not published until 1532

Naples

• One of the five city-state powers of Italy

• Hereditary monarchy

• Peace was not established until 1443, by Alfonoso I of Aragon after continuous civil war

Milan

• City-state in Renaissance Italy

• Major concern was preventing foreign invasion

• Northern Italy

• Economy was oriented toward Switzerland and Germany

Florence

• Center of Renaissance culture

• One of the wealthiest cities in Europe

• Northern Italy

• 15th Century was ruled by the Medici banking family

• Economy based on wool

Venice

• Water was source of prosperity (trade)

• Located on head of Adriatic sea (Northwest)

• Was ruled by the hereditary elite and the Doge

Papal States

• Capital was Rome

• Only city-state governed by a hereditary monarchy

• Pope did not rule, only resided there

• Alphonso I of Aragon gained throne, peace was restored

doge

• Ruler of Venice

• Title, not name

• Was the elected chief of the magistrate

Francesco Sforza

• 1401-1456

• Great military leader in Renaissance Italy

• Seized power in Milan and became the Duke

Condottieri

• Name given to the leaders of the mercenary groups in Renaissance Italy.

• Mostly used in the wars against the Italian city-states.

• Sold services to the highest bidder.

• Dangerous, even to their allies.

• Often deserted their allies and drove them to bankruptcy.

Peace of Lodi

• 1454

• Established 2 balanced alliances of the city-states

1. Florence and Milan

2. Venice and Naples

• Was unsuccessful in bringing about lasting peace

• The states and the papacy pledged mutual non-aggression which lasted for only 40 years.

• The large states continued to overtake the smaller cities and creating a quasi-empires.

Oligarchy

• Means "rule by the few"

• A government ruled by an elite few.

• Example: ethnos was governed by an elite (oligarchy)

• Made up of major land owners

• Wealthier citizens governed

Signoria

• Italian "lordship" in Italian city-states

• Ruling council in Florence's republican form of government

• Followers among the artisans to maintain eligibility of voters.

• Emergency powers established to reduce number of citizens qualified to vote for the Signoria.

Cosimo de' Medici

• Ruled in Florence

• Patriarch of the Medici family banking company

• Established a form of loose rule over the city

• Secured a century long dynasty

• Able to gain controlling influence on Signoria

• Sought to make peace between Naples & Florence

• One of the richest men in Christendom- 1434

• Practical- taught children humanistic principles

• Funded Palazzo Medici

• Grandfather of Lorenzo de' Medici

Mehmed II

• Known as "The Conqueror"

• One of the greatest military geniuses in history

• Consolidated expansions of the Ottoman Empire in Asia minor

• Organized the siege of Constantinople

• Ottoman sultan at age of 19

Wars of Italy

• Series of wars that uprooted Italian hegemony

• Began as Naples, Florence, and the Papal States against Milan

• Milan called for help- the French and the Swiss

• In retaliation, Venice and the Papal states called for Spain (Aragon) and the Holy Roman Empire

• Foreign powers fighting for dynastic supremacy

• Ended in destruction of the Italian peninsula

• Sack of Rome (1527)- German mercenaries

• Italian unification delayed and Italian culture became background in European development

City-states

• The center of power, wealth, and culture in the Christian world during the beginning of the 15th century

• Dotted the Italian peninsula

• Differed in size, shape, and form

• Milan

• Florence

• Venice

• Naples

• the Papal States

Prince Henry the Navigator

• Portuguese

• Attempted to establish southern bases

• Helped capture North African port of Ceuta from the Muslims (1450)

• Wanted to make contact with Africans and find an alternative route to India and the far east around Africa

• Opened trade in ivory, gold & slaves

Bartolomeu Dias

• Portuguese explorer

• Cavalier of the Royal Court

• Rounded the Southern tip of Africa and opened the eastern African shores to Portuguese traders

• First to pass the Cape of Good Hope

Vasco de Gama

• Portuguese explorer

• Rounded the Cape of Good Hope and took the first Portuguese fleet across the Indian Ocean

• Returned to Lisbon with valuable spices of the east after a two year journey

Alfonso de Albuquerque

• Portuguese

• Understood the need for strategically placed garrisons (place of residence and armory for the soldiers)

• Conquered vital parts of Middle East and India

Christopher Columbus

• Italian

• Was funded by Isabella de Castile

• Landed in the Americas (October 12, 1492)

• Landed with the ships the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María

• Originally sailed to find a water route to Asia

• Returned from his expedition with gold, encouraging future exploration

Ferdinand Magellan

• First to circumnavigate the globe

• Died when he undertook a position in a Filipino war

• The crew continued on a 90 day crossing of the Pacific and completed the journey without him

Vasco Nunez de Balboa

• Crossed the land passage of Panama

• First European to see the Pacific Ocean (it's name comes from the Spanish word "pacifica", which means peaceful

• Refueled Spanish ambitions to find a passage to the Indies via the Pacific Ocean

Hernando Cortes

• Colonized New World in three main interests of the Crown, gold, new land and convert natives to Christianity

• Was mistaken for Quetzalcoatl by the Aztecs due to his light skin and beard

• 1521, Conquered Aztecs

• 1522, conquers area as large as Spain

Francisco Pizarro

• 1531

• Conquered Incas in Peru.

• Vastly expanded the territory under the Spanish control.

• Major profit from gold and silver mines went to Spain.

• The gold and silver discoveries helped fund the Spanish dynastic ambitions in Europe.

Muscovy

• Largest European political unit.

• Heir to ancient state of Russia through conquest, alliance and good fortune.

• Its military successes were almost unbroken.

• Land once gained was never lost.

• Famous rulers

o Ivan III

o Ivan IV

o Michael Romanov

Ivan III, the Great

• Had no competitors for his throne which helped administer new Muscovite territories.

• Expands Muscovy North and West.

• Military successes almost unbroken.

• Wars waged to secure agricultural territory.

• Facilitates phenomenal growth.

• Extended the privileges of his nobility and organized a military class that received land as a reward for fidelity.

Ivan IV, the Terrible

• Defeated Mongols

• Greatest ambition was to gain a portion of the Baltic Sea to establish a northern outlet for commerce.

• Military campaigns in north weaken southern border.

• 1571- Crimean Tatars burn Moscow.

• Severe distrust of the boyars which leads to Time of Troubles which led to several thousand families to be massacred.

boyars

• One of three Muscovite society groups.

• Hereditary nobility.

• Powerful landlords of great estates.

• Inherited lands did not benefit from expansion or conquest.

• Obtained influence and government posts through their military support of princes.

• Occupied the highest state offices through a council advised the prince.

• Used as legislative advisers and in Ivan IV parliamentary council.

Michael Romanov

• Chosen tsar by assembly of landlords

• Comes to power during Russian Time of Troubles

• Time of Troubles was a crisis of legitimacy in the Russian crown around 1601

• Humiliating peace with Swedes in return for Swedish assistance against the Poles

Poland- Lithuania

• Kingdom spanned from the Baltic to Black Seas.

• Crowns of Polish and Lithuanian Kingdoms in 14th Century.

• Divided Teutonic Knight Territories.

• The nobility developed strong local interest that increased over time.

Jagiellon Dynasty

• Royal dynasty originating from Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century

• At close of 15th Century Jagiellon family rules Poland, Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary

Henry VII Tudor

• Began Tudor Dynasty at the end of the English War of the Roses

• Married Elizabeth of York.

• Extended power of Crown and restored order.

• Financial problems limited domestic and international affairs.

• Put an end to dynastic instability

• Created a new peerage, new nobles indebted to Henry VII

Thomas Cromwell

• Set up administration departments (e.g. State, Revenue Keeping)

• Chief minister of Henry VIII from 1532 to 1540

• Expanding power of Privy Court (King's executive body)

Louis XI

• Ruled France post Hundred Years Wars.

• Expanded power of Crown.

• Subdued nobility.

• AKA "The Spider"

• Took control of powerful fiefs: Brittany and Orleans

taille

• A direct French tax which nobles were exempt.

• Heavy burden on people in comparison to English tax counterpart.

gabelle

• A consumption tax on salt

• Mostly throughout the Kingdom of France

• Tax fell on all of the 3rd estate

• No matter how poor a family was the tax had to be paid

• Money used to raise army

aide

• Tax on various commodities such as meat and wine

• Many complaints on the tax

• French Monarchy established a broad base for taxation with a high degree of compliance before other European countries

Ferdinand of Aragon

• Secretly exchanged wedding vows with Isabella of Castile

• Marriage united France

• Father was John II

• Worked to forge Spanish states

• Date:1479-1516

Isabella of Castile

• Married Ferdinand of Aragon

• Marriage united France

• Worked to form Spanish states

• Recovered land conquered by Moors

reconquista

• Created national identity for Spanish Christians

• Date: circa 1480

• The re-capture and re-Christianization of the conquered territories.

• Completed in 1492

• Expelled Jews from Spain

• Collected Spanish settlers for an army

converses

• People who converted to Christianity

• Became most powerful members of church and state

• Was taken over by a tribunal church

• Date: Late 14th Century

Emperor Charles V

• Emperor of Holy Roman Empire

• Alliance With England

• Victory over France at Pavia (1524)

• Victory Seemingly made him the master of Europe

• Alliance with France after the marriage of France to Charles' sister

• Date: 1500s

Francis I of France

• King of France

• Led troops against the Holy Roman Empire

• Captured by Charles V

• Alliance with England through the marriage of Charles's sister

• Date: 1500s

Valosi Dynasty

• Circa 1350

• Phillip VI (1328-1350) was the first king of France from Valois

• Both the Kings of France and the Dukes of Burgundy share ancestry from the Valois Dynasty

• Pitted against Habsburg Empire in the 16th century

• Saved by Joan of Arc (1429)

Habsburg Empire

• Claimed many lands (Germany, Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, Naples, Sardinia, and part of the Netherlands)

• Fueded with Valois 1522-1544, ended with the treaty of Crespy (Rule of King Charles)

• One of the most powerful empires in Europe

Treaty of Cateau- Cambresis

• 1559

• Brought to close the sixty year conflict in 1559

• Henry II released from jail, celebrated treaty as victory

• France and Spain declare bankruptcy

Bartolome de las Casas

• Dominican Priest

• Published Apologetic History of the Indies in 1550

• Highlighted complexity of native societies and their destruction.

Luis de Camoes

• Circa 1570's

• Wrote Lusiad, one of the greatest Portugese literatures (1572)

• Spoke of how New World had surpassed old World in conquest and exploration

Columbian Exchange

The after affects of Columbus' discovery of the New World

• Exchange of ideas, people, microbes, plants, and animals between the New World and Europe

• Cocoa beans, tomatoes, potatoes, horses, pigs, dogs, and cows

Spanish Inquistion

• 1479-1516

• Effort to convert conquered Muslims and Jews to Christianity

• 1492- Jews expelled from Spain

• Led to religious unity and enhanced political centalization

• Conversos- people who converted but still practiced their old religion in secret.

• Tortured and killed heretics

• King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella ruled during this time

Treaty of Tordesillas

• 1494

• Confirmed Portugals rights to eastern routes to the Indies and undiscovered lands east of Cape Verde islands

• Entitled Portugal to Brazil

• Spanish got land west of the line

• Line drawn through South America by the Pope

Johannes Gutenberg

• Invented process for printing with movable type

• Published Bibles in 1450s

• Made reading more available

Christian Humanism

• A program of reform rather than philosophy

• Powerful, intellectual movement

• Revival of classic literature

• Analyzed the Bible to understand Christ and the Apostles

• Interested in education of women

• Sir Thomas More and Desiderius Erasmus were major humanists

• Scholasticism was a dominant way of teaching in universities and schools