Animal Sciences 1165 Final Exam (Beef)

Beef:

Meat from cattle.

How did the use of rail car affect shipping meat in the 1860s?

- Not a lot of product could be saved, but more of it was used because we found a way to get it across the country in an efficient amount of time.
- The beef was typically sent to the Eastern Market to be processed for consumers.
- In 1880 the refrigerated rail car was invented.

How many cattle per day did the Kansas City Stockyards have at its peak?

About 55,000 head per day.

Why have there been declines in all cattle and calves' inventory after the mid 1970s?

- There are many more options of what you could eat.
- Health trends are going against beef.
- The price of beef is expensive.
- Beef production is not down overall.
- Cattle inventory is down overall.
- Could be potentially from Covid and droughts.
- Consumption of beef is decreasing it overall in the U.S.
- We are exporting our beef instead.

Meat consumption by selected country:

- We consume the most meat per person per capita.
- We consume the most chicken.
- Meat follows economic trends.
- Developed countries have more meat option as a protein source.

Cow/Calf state:

You have cows, those cows give birth, and how long you keep those calves depends on your operation.

Feeder Operations:

- Stocker: putting the cattle out on pasture to let them grow out to send them to a feedlot.
- Graze grass 3-4 months before feedlot.

Backgrounding:

Fed dry forage, silage, and grain 90-120 days before feedlot.

Feedlot:

You just immediately send them to the feedlot to begin with.

Seedstock:

- Known for producing high quality genetics.
- Purebred
- Specific breeds

Commercial:

Crossbred with a particular purpose in mind.

Beef Cattle Inventory per U.S. Farm:

- The average herd size is less than 50 cattle.
- The U.S. has very small herds and types of facilities.
- Very few have over 1,000 head.
- Missouri is a large cattle producing state.
- Missouri ranks #3 in beef production.
- Missouri's herd size is around 20 to 49 head per herd.

Missouri Agriculture and Beef:

- $93.7 billion industry.
- Ranks 2nd in number of farms.
- Ranks 3rd in number of beef cattle.
- Ranks 3rd in cow-calf operations.

Beef is a global industry because:

- Cattle inventory is down.
- Beef production is up.
- Beef consumption is slightly down.
- Having a thriving global economy is crucial to the ag industry.
- We export a lot of high quality beef.
- Asian cultures like high quality cuts of beef.
- South Korea, Japan, and China.
- We import higher fat quality ground beef product.

Why do we import higher fat quality ground beef product?

We mix our lean beef with the higher fat quality ground beef that we've imported to make a more plateable product for our consumers.

Cow Products include:

- Meat products.
- Leather products.
- Intestines can be used for tennis rackets.
- Plasma proteins from their blood is used for the color of imitation crab.
- Gelatin.
- Soap.
- Candles.
- Only 60% of the animal becomes products, the rest we use in other ways.
- The sticky part of a BandAid is the fat from the cow.

What is a species?

- A population or group that can breed and produce offspring.
- Group of organisms of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes.
- Natural taxonomic unit.

What is a breed?

- A group within a species.
- They all have similar phenotypes.
- People choose it.
- Group of organisms within a species having a distinct appearance.
- Typically, having been developing by deliberate selection.

What is the Bos Taurus species of cattle?

- Taurine cattle.
- Most common in the U.S.
- Found in the U.S., Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa.

What is the Bos Indicus species of cattle?

- Found in more humid regions of the world.
- Originated in South Africa (Zebu).
- Known for their large, floppy dewlap, ears, etc. which is used as a way to cool them down.
- The Brahman breed was developed in the U.S.
- They are more parasitic resistant.
- Serve as both milk and meat production purposes.

Where did British Cattle originate from?

Ireland, Scotland, and England.

Where did the Continental Cattle originate from?

- Continental European Region.
- More referred to as exotic breeds.

What are the characteristics of British breeds?

- Smaller mature size.
- Mature faster.
- Less growth potential.
- High producing animals for their body size.
- Noted for their fertility and calving ease.
- Attain higher quality grades because they are smaller in size.
- Lower carcass yields.

What are the characteristics of Continental breeds?

- Larger mature size.
- Later maturing.
- Carcass with less fat.
- Higher carcass yield.
- Lower quality grades because of the less fat.
- Produce more calving difficulty in British breeds.

Aberdeen Angus (Angus cattle):

- British breed.
- Originated in Scotland.
- Noted by their black color.
- Most common breed in the U.S.
- Certified Angus Beef (Quality assurance on the label; a standard).

What are the criteria that need to be met to be considered Certified Angus Beef?

1.) Modest or higher marbling.
2.) Medium or fine marbling texture.
3.) Cattle harvested 30 months of age or younger (less time to use their muscles, so that the meat won't be tough).
4.) 10-to-16-square-inch ribeye area.
5.) 1,100 pound hot carcass weight or less.
6.) Less than 1 inch fat thickness.
7.) Superior muscling.
8.) Practically free of capillary ruptures (stress on animals causes capillary ruptures).
9.) No dark cutters.
10.) No neck hump exceeding 2 inches.
- In order to meet any of these standards, the cattle must be:
- Angus- influenced cattle (51% solid black hide).
- The animals are not genetically tested to ensure that they are 100% Angus.
- Definitely a marketing tool that has put the angus industry above the rest.

What are the benefits of Aberdeen Angus Cattle?

1.) Strong and growing demand: Aberdeen Angus cattle command a premium price. This is not going to change as the breed's demand continues to grow.
2.) High growth rates.
3.) Correct for the market.
4.) Versatility.
5.) Great maternal ability.
6.) Money well-spent.
7.) Hardiness and efficiency.
8.) Longevity.
9.) Number 1 brand.
10.) Futureproofing your operation.

What are the characteristics of Charolais cattle?

- Continental breed.
- Originated in France (came to the U.S. during WWII).
- Medium to large frame size.
- Longer legged/taller.
- White color with pink muzzle.
- Demonstrate efficient growth.
- "More pounds. More profit."

What are the characteristics of Hereford cattle?

- British breed (named for the breed came from Herefordshire).
- Noted by its red body and white face.
- Longevity.
- Many cows live 15+ years.
Many bulls live 12+ years.
- Early maturity.

What are the characteristics of Simmental cattle?

- Continental breed.
- Originated in Switzerland.
- Originally selected for:
- Milk.
- Meat.
- Draft animals (used for work).
- Pretty good milkers and pretty good moms.

What are the characteristics of Red Angus cattle?

- British breed.
- Same origin as the Aberdeen Angus.
- 1917 only black were allowed to be registered.
- 1954: A new herdbook for Red Angus was created.
- Black coloring is dominant.
- They think the red color got introduced by using longhorn cattle for a work animal possibly.

What are the characteristics of the Texas Longhorn?

- Iconic breed.
- Eats wider range of grasses, plants, and weeds.
- Produces very lean beef.
- Longevity.
- Docility.

What are the characteristics of Gelbvieh cattle?

- Continental breed.
- "Yellow cattle" in German.
- Came to U.S. in the 1970s to Clay Center, NE.
- Triple purpose breed.
- Reddish gold, russet, or black in color.
- Fine hair.
- Medium to large body size.
- Fast pre-weaning growth.

What are the characteristics of Holstein cattle (relating to the beef industry)?

- Dairy breed.
- Makes up about 25% of the beef industry with the beef on dairy.

What are the characteristics of Limousin cattle?

- Continental breed.
- Originated in Central and Southwest France.
- Breed of sturdiness, health, and adaptability.
- Work and meat.
- Large body, small head, and golden-red coat color.
- Produces a lean carcass.
- This creates some chewiness and toughness.
- This is why we import a lot of fat, so that we can mix it in, and change the flavor profile of the meat.

What are the characteristics of Highland cattle?

- British breed.
- Originated in the Scottish Highlands.
- Meat breed.
- High fat milk.
- Horns help forage during heavy winters.
- In Scotland, they are brought up and housed in Folds (all those little rock walls; corral to protect them from the elements and house).

What are the characteristics of Shorthorn cattle?

- British breed.
- Identified as the oldest recognized breed.
- Dual purpose breed.
- Roan coloring (red and white speckled).
- The first shorthorn breed was noted in Cooper County, Missouri.

What is meant by the phrase "Cattle are converters"?

- Cattle convert low-quality foods into nutrient-dense food for us.
- They eat forages.
- They eat by-products such as: Distiller's grains, DDGS, corn, etc. (it is something that is created from waste from another product).
- They utilize land unsuitable for cultivation.

Cow-Calf Operations:

- Missouri is in the top 3 of cow-calf states
- The average farm in the U.S. is a little smaller than 50 cows.
- Large land investments: Fewer in facilities (bare minimum of fencing).
- Several farms are owned by many different people (causing no vertical integration).

What are factors to consider for major management of your herd?

- Herd nutrition.
- Pasture and range management.
- Pasture rotation.
- Understanding plant growth.
- Herd health.
Financial management.
- Marketing.
- Reproduction (especially on a cow-calf operation).
- Making sound genetic choices.

How to assess profitability in your cattle operation:

- Calf crop percentage weaned (the number of calves that are weaned per 100 cows. Ex: 100 cows and 92 calves, then you have a 92% calf crop).
- Average weight at weaning will be, that will be a target weight and something you should strive for (about 7 months).
- Half of the cow's weight by the time of weaning.
- After about 4 months, the calves aren't getting much value out of the milk.
- You need to know the annual cow cost, which helps determine whether you should keep or sell that cow.
- Compare market price with break-even price.

Spring or Fall Calving: What are the advantages and disadvantages?

- Cows are not seasonal animals (not photosensitive).
- They have a 280-day gestation length.
- Some producers will utilize both calving seasons.
Advantages:
- Larger sized farms.
- Same bill both seasons.
- Gives flexibility with heifer (heifers should calve out before the cows are due)(give birth around 2 years of age).
- Spreads out the marketing risk.
Disadvantages:
- More labor requirements.
- More pasture management.

Spring Calving- Advantages and Disadvantages:

- More common in the U.S.
- Lasts from February-April.
- Heifers should give birth before the cows so that you can give them the most attention since they haven't calved before. It can be more difficult to get them pregnant again, so this gives you additional time to get them pregnant again.
Advantages:
- Increasing temperatures.
- Growth of grasses.
Disadvantages:
- Rain, snow, and mud.

Fall Calving- Advantages and Disadvantages:

- Lasts from August-October.
Advantages:
- Weaned calves marketed in the spring.
- Breeding animals in the fall (but could cause fescue toxicity, which is ergot alkaloid which serves as the toxin, they can eventually eat way too much fescue that can cause death; constricts the blood vessels and decreases blood-flow).
- With that, we see lower calf weight.
Disadvantages:
- Must get calves through the winter.
- Manage the lactating cow.
- Lower calf weight.

What are the three stages of parturition in cattle?

Stage 1: Preparatory stage:
- Calf getting into position.
- Cow's reproductive tract preparing.
Stage 2: Delivery:
- 2-4 hours (consistent progress)
- Dystocia (anything that we have to assist with; it's a difficult birth).
Stage 3: Clean up:
- Placenta passes in 8-12 hours.

Calf Loss:

- Peri-natal calf mortality 3-5%.
- 44% of the animals that died had a difficult birth.
- Our calf loss is lower today than it was in 2017.
- Sometimes we can see this issue with smaller calves.
- They can be born dis-mature or pre-mature.
- The calf is not really ready to be born.
- Smaller calves might be weaker.
- Large calves in first-calf heifers.
- The majority of calves are lost during the first 1-3 days.

What factors can lead to calf loss?

- Sometimes we can see this issue with smaller calves.
- They can be born dis-mature or pre-mature.
- The calf is not really ready to be born.
- Smaller calves might be weaker.
- Large calves in first-calf heifers.
- The majority of calves are lost during the first 1-3 days.
- Scours can cause calf loss.
- Pneumonia can cause calf loss.
- Both can be caused by a viral or bacterial strain.

What is the Madigan Squeeze?

This is where you take a rope and tie it behind the elbows, behind the hips, then pull on the rope to stimulate the birthing process.

How should you care for the neonatal calf?

- Make sure they get colostrum.
- They have a Cotyledonary placenta.
- Vaccinate the cow about 30 days before she is about to give birth, so that she will take the antibodies that are created in the vaccine reaction and transfer those to the calf through the colostrum.
- Weigh the calves.
- Tag the calves.
- Castrate potentially.

What is meant by the term "Epitheliochorial placenta"?

- Refers to how thick the layers between the cow and calf are.
- These animals have a greater distance between the fetal and maternal blood.
- 3-6 layers total to get the dam's blood supply to the fetal blood supply.

What is colostrum, and what does it give to the calf?

- Colostrum is the first secretion of the mammary gland.
- It is made up of immunoglobins, fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin B12, and Iron.
- This is provided to the calf as a passive immunity transfer.
- They should vigorously nurse within the first 24 hours because they need to absorb and consume the immunoglobins within the first 12-24 hours of life.

What is meant by the term "Passive transfer"?

- Provides the calf with temporary protection from the dam.
- Required for the first 24 hours of life.
- These are very large molecules.
- Because of the epitheliochorial placenta, they cannot transfer the immunoglobins from the dam to fetus during the pregnancies.
- They could instead provide a plasma transfer, but that would be expensive for no reason when you can just give them colostrum.

Where does the nutrients absorption occur in the calf?

In the small intestine.

Rumen Development:

- When a calf is born as a neonatal, they don't have a functional rumen.
- Esophageal groove= reticular groove.
- This is a by-pass straight into the abomasum.
- We by-pass the rumen for the first two weeks because we don't want milk to start fermenting in the rumen.

How can you prevent illness in neonatal calves?

- Dip umbilical cord because that's the "wick" for the bacteria to get in a cause infection into the GI tract and cardiovascular system.
- Chlorahexine (or diluted iodine) is used for this process.
- Dry off the umbilical cord after dipping it.

What all is done during the processing of calves?

- It is a stressful time for calves.
- Branding (either freeze brand or hot brand) serves as a form of identification.
- Castration (either surgical or bloodless options).
- Dehorning.

What types of identification methods can be used on cattle?

- Ear tag is the simplest option.
- Electronic I.D.
- Branding
- Hot branding: going to damage the hair and the skin and causes and prevents the regrowth of the hair on the animal. Hot brand might be more prone to infection, but the hot brand cauterizes the wound.
- Freeze branding: nice on black animals. Just damages the color of the hair follicle causing the hair to grow back white.

When should you castrate your bull calves?

- You should do it when it works best for your facility.
- There are advantages to doing it sooner rather than later.

Why should you castrate bull calves?

- To help the fat deposition better develop.
- Steers are a more tender and juicy product because it starts to develop the fat differently than an intact male.
- This creates a different behavior because the testosterone is gone.

How should you castrate bull calves?

- Surgical is the most common method.
- Take a knife and pulling out the testes and then they are done.
- Keep in mind what time of year you are going to be doing it.
- Leave scrotum open to allow it to drain.
- During fly and mud seasons would not be a great time to do this.
- Bloodless options include clamps, smashing the scromatic cord.
- Banding: you pull both testes done then drop the band on the upper side of the testes, they will die and fall off.
- Another option is chemical castration, but it's not as common.
- There's a big push for this, even though consumers don't want other chemicals in their products.
- Inject a material into the testes that causes it to die.
- They are typically not long-term options.
- Using hormones that prevent the development of the testes.
- Bos Indicus tends to do better with chemical castration than others.

When should you dehorn your calves?

The earlier the better.

Why should you dehorn your calves?

- Safety for farmers and other animals.
- You don't want to damage your product.

How should you dehorn your calves?

- Hot knife.
- Disbudding.
- Cauterizing gun

Why have we seen a decrease in the need for dehorning/disbudding?

Because of the polled gene.

What are the consumer concerns with castration?

The later you castrate the bull calf, the more weight they will lose after castration. This is due to their stress response from castration.

When should calves be vaccinated?

- 60-90 days of age for Clostridial diseases (7-way).
- 2-4 weeks before weaning for Clostridial disease (7-way), IBR, BVD, BRSV, and PI3.
- At weaning: IBR, BVD, BRSV, PI3. Brucellosis vaccine for replacement heifers.

What is passive immunity?

You are given immunity from something (a calf getting immunoglobins from colostrum).

What is active immunity?

You are given some sort of stressor and develop your own immunity to something. (you are exposed to a virus or a vaccine that helps you build up immunity)

Why should you not begin vaccinations at the time of weaning?

- Weaning puts a lot of stress on the calf, so if you wait to vaccinate them for the first time during this time, they won't have an adequate response to the drug.
- The sale barn is a very dirty place.
- There is not as much of a different set of vaccinations in closed herds.

Clostridial Disease/Blackleg:

- Clostridial disease, which is a bacteria that affects the muscle, liver, or intestines. Most often these animals are found dead.
- Blackleg, which starts as necrosis of the muscle tissue (usually in the leg) which turns into blackleg. Causes malignant edema (fluid), and these bacterial contaminants can live easier in environments.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR):

- Highly infectious.
- Causes a snotty nose.
- Caused by Bovine Herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1).
- Acute inflammation of the upper respiratory tract.
- The virus is never fully removed.
- Nerve cells in the brain (causes latent infection).
- Tends to affect the younger and older animals.
- May multiply again when the animal is stressed.
- Can cause late term abortions.
- Systemic infections such as a fever, cough, mucus drainage, lameness.
- The best thing to do for that animal is to give them supportive care.
- If it's a subclinical infection, cull them from your herd because they will infect the rest of your herd.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD):

- Commonly causes respiratory and reproductive issues.
- You will see diarrhea (obviously).
- It is an economically important disease.
- This can be passed on to a calf in utero.
- You can provide support therapy to them and cull.
- The calf that gets it in utero can cross the placenta and/or the birth canal.
- Can cause a fetus to go through absorption, abortion, or still birth.
- If they get it congenitally, it can determine their quality of life after birth.

Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV):

- Indigenous in the cattle population.
- Affects the lower respiratory tract.
- Secondary infection is pneumonia.
- Secondary infections can cause greater severity/death.
- Transmission: respiratory aerosols and direct contact (the animal breathes and the virus spreads through the air).
- Needs a lab test to confirm infection.
- Symptoms include: fever, increased respiration, eye discharge, cough, and nasal discharge.
- Syncytial cells will merge and have multinucleate cells similar to RSV in human babies.

Parainfluenza Virus 3 (PI3):

- Upper respiratory mucosa.
- Only responsible for respiratory disease.
- More susceptible to IBR or bacterial respiratory pathogens.
- You have to test them with a PCR test.

Brucellosis:

- Bacterial disease.
- Bang's disease.
- It is highly contagious.
- Through calf, membranes, and uterine fluid.
- Zoonotic (meaning it can cross over to other species of ruminants).
- Can spread through infected meat, placenta of infected animal, or unpasteurized milk/cheese.
- Missouri is Brucellosis free.
- Irradiation program began in 1954.
- Cannot be cured.

Types of Vaccines:

- Can contain bacteria, viruses, or both.
- Modified live: Organisms are alive and can replicate. Cannot cause illness.
Killed: Organisms are no longer alive.

What are implants used for in cattle?

- Used to increase rate of gain.
- Provides exogenous (coming from an external source) hormone.
- Promotes growth.
- Implant placed in the ear.
- Some concerns over quality grade with use.
- Some concern over residual hormones in meat.
- Less than 50% of calves on cow/calf operations have growth hormones, but once they go to the feedlot, they may or may not be implanted.

What are the affects of not deworming your calves prior to weaning, and what are the methods of deworming?

- Most parasites are out of sight, out of mind.
- Only around 40% of calves are dewormed before weaning.
- When grazing pasture, the calves are exposed to parasites.
- The contraction of parasites reduces the calf's productivity as well as a decrease in feed intake and reduces the nutrient absorption.
- There are three options for dewormer application:
- Pour-on.
- Injectable.
- Oral.

What types of nutrition should be provided to calves?

- Provide adequate forages.
- Provide milk from the cows. The milk skips the rumen and goes straight into the abomasum.
- Calves will start grazing at 3 months of age.
- There is a decrease in milk's nutritional value around 4 months of age.
- Creep feeding can be profitable, but you need to know if it will help you achieve what you want it to.

When should you wean calves?

- Around 7 months of age.
- Should depend on the body condition score of the cow.

What is traditional weaning?

Taking the cows away from the calves and separating them where they won't hear each other to try and limit the amount of time that they bawl.

What is fence-line weaning?

Cows are on one side of the fence and the calves are on the other side.

What is two-step weaning?

- You round the calves up and insert nose rings on them.
- You send them back out into the pasture with their mom, but they cannot nurse from the cow due to the nose ring.
- One or two weeks later you run them back through the chute and take out the nose rings because they should in theory be weaned.

What is Uterine Torsion?

- This is where the uterus twists inside the cow.
- The uterus is held in place by the broad ligament.
- The broad ligament doesn't stretch as well as the uterus during pregnancy.
- When the uterus grows too quickly, it can get off-balanced.
- The uterus itself will physically twist.
- Can also be caused by the fetus.
- You need to put it back although it isn't easily doable by using the Madigan Squeeze.
- This typically happens later in gestation close to calving.
If you don't get that fixed, the calf will lose blood supply and die.
- You are better off the perform a C-section.

What is a Retained Placenta?

- A placenta that has not passed within 8-12 hours after birth.
- Best to provide antibiotic but not manipulated.
- It's common to provide her with some oxygen and manipulate the uterus, but this isn't always successful and mostly frowned upon.
- There is a 5-15% chance of occurrence in a healthy herd.
- More frequent when having bull calves.
- There is a 20% chance of a reoccurrence.

What is a Prolapse?

- The inversion of the vagina or uterus.
- This could result in the death of the cow.
- Could go through shock, hemorrhage, and thromboembolism (blood clots, maybe specifically in the lungs).
- You should encourage the cow to stand after birth.
- After a prolapse, she has a high probability of another prolapse.

How long is a beef cow's gestation period?

280 days.

How long is a beef cow's calving interval?

365 days.

Approximately how long do cows have to become pregnant?

80 days.

How many days are allotted for mature cows to cycle and rebreed?

40-80 days.

How many days are allotted for heifers to cycle and rebreed?

60-100 days.

How long is a cow's estrous cycle?

21 days.

What is the meaning of "gravid" and "non-gravid" when referring to a cow's reproductive tract?

- Gravid= the pregnant horn.
- Non-gravid= non-pregnant horn.

What is the function of progesterone in the cow's estrous cycle?

To maintain pregnancy.

What is the function of PGF2a in the cow's estrous cycle?

Will kill the CL and bring the cow back into heat.

What does a surge of LH lead to?

Ovulation.

What is an oocyte?

An egg that gets released to go find a sperm and make a calf.

When is FSH present in the Estrous Cycle?

During and up to the follicular phase (the brain, uterus, and ovaries are sending signals back and forth).

What happens during Estrus for a cow?

- They are in standing heat.
- They stand to be mounted.
- Average duration of Estrus for cows is 15-18 hours.
- They will begin mounting other cows.
- Have a mucus discharge.
- Swelling and reddening of the vulva.
- Bellowing and restlessness.

What all needs to be done for calving season management?

- Bull management.
- Turning the bull in.
- Take a scrotal circumference prior to turning him in (30 cm scrotum is the bare minimum).
- Cows per bull:
- A yearling bull should be stocked with as many cows as as many months of age he is. He is good to use on heifers because of his size.
- Seasoned bull (20-25 cows, but a really fertile bull can go up to 50).
- Bulls are sexually mature at around 12 months of age.