AP Psychology Units 2, 3, 4, 5 and 14 BOE

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A method for gathering self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by questioning a representative sample.

Experiment

A research method where one or more factors (independent variables) are manipulated to observe their effect on a dependent variable.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable; serves as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Population

The entire group being studied, from which a sample may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative Sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Convenience Sample

A sample based on ease of access, rather than random selection.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize bias.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment or placebo.

Placebo

A substance or treatment with no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response measured in an experiment.

Statistical Significance

Indicates whether an observed effect is likely due to chance.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Quantitative Measures

Data that is numerical and can be measured precisely.

Qualitative Measures

Data that is descriptive and subjective in nature.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure combining the results of multiple studies.

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Bystander Effect

Tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals in a group compared to when working alone.

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Trap

A situation where conflicting parties harm themselves by pursuing their own interests.

Ingroup vs. Outgroup Phenomenon

Favoring one’s own group (ingroup) and discriminating against others (outgroup).

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving outgroup members as more similar than ingroup members.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating personality traits and underestimating situational factors when explaining behavior.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced sense of responsibility in the presence of others.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation to help those dependent on us.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A study by Philip Zimbardo exploring the power of situational influences on behavior.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony in decision-making groups leads to poor outcomes.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

Asch Experiment

A study on conformity, demonstrating individuals may yield to group pressure.

Milgram Study

A study on obedience showing people’s willingness to obey authority, even against their morals.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

The tendency for people to comply with a larger request after agreeing to a smaller one.

Obedience

Following the instructions of an authority figure.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with a group standard.

Neurons

Basic building blocks of the nervous system.

Axon

The long fiber that transmits signals from the neuron to other neurons or muscles.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge traveling down the axon.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty covering of axons that speeds up neural impulses.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters linked to pain relief and pleasure.

Endocrine System

A system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

The "master gland" that regulates other glands.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to movement, emotion, and reward.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter related to muscle action and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal activity.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter influencing mood, hunger, and sleep.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two brain hemispheres.

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory relay center.

Hypothalamus

Regulates bodily functions like hunger and temperature.

Reticular Formation

A network involved in arousal and consciousness.

Medulla

Controls vital functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement and balance.

Hippocampus

Processes explicit memories.

Amygdala

Linked to emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

All nerves outside the central nervous system.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors receive stimulus energies.

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis beginning with sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Using experience and expectations to interpret sensory input.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus required for detection 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

Smallest detectable difference between stimuli.

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts how and when a signal will be detected amidst background noise.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one voice among many.

Selective Attention

Focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Night Terrors

Episodes of screaming and fear during deep sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking.

Delta Waves

Slow brain waves of deep sleep.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of rapid brain activity during Stage 2 sleep.

Alpha Waves

Brain waves associated with relaxation.

REM Sleep

A sleep stage with rapid eye movement and vivid dreams.

Information Processing Theory

Dreams help sort and process daily experiences.

Physiological Functioning Theory

Dreams provide stimulation for brain growth and development.

Activation Synthesis Theory

Dreams result from random neural activity.

REM Rebound

Increased REM sleep after REM deprivation.