A&P Exam 2

Functions of Osseous Tissues

support, protection, movement, mineral homeostasis, energy storage, and blood cell production.

mineral homeostasis

store minerals: calcium & phosphorus // releases minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral balance (homeostasis)

Energy storage

yellow bone marrow, involved with fat, provides energy

Blood cell production

 hemopoiesis in the red bone marrow

Parts of a Long Bone

diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, articular cartilage, periosteum, medullary cavity, and endosteum

diaphysis

shaft area

epiphysis

ends of the long bones

Metaphysis

junction of the diaphysis

articular cartilage

hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the long bone

periosteum

dense regular C.T. surrounds the entire bone except the articular cartilage is located

Medullary cavity

marrow, hollowed area inside the diaphysis

Endosteum

thin layer of potential bone-producing cells that lines the marrow area (medullary cavity)

Parts of an Osteon

Comprise lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi, central canal, and osteocytes.

Bone Cells

Include osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

Osteoprogenitor or Osteogenic cells

can become when needed; develop into osteoblast

Osteoblast

cells produce bone

Osteocyte

old mature cells that maintains the bones

osteoclast

bone resorption, breaks down the bone

Intramembranous Ossification

A less common ossification process occurring in flat bones like the skull and scapula. It produces bone on or within a membrane.

Intracartilaginous Ossification

The most common ossification process converting cartilage into bone. It requires blood supply because bone is vascular.

Factors Influencing Bone Development

Nutrients,

minerals: calcium, phosphorus, magnesium

vitamins: D for calcium, C for CT, B12 for RBC

hormones: human growth hormones, thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormones, insulin-like growth factors, sex hormones

Zones of the Epiphyseal Growth Plate

zone of calcified cartilage, zone of hypertrophic cartilage, zone of proliferating cartilage, and zone of resting cartilage.

Osteogenic Sarcoma

Bone cancer, often seen in teenage boys. It can be treated if found early, amputation if not.

Osteoporosis

Demineralization of bones, common in women over 50. As they go through menopause and their estrogen levels drop, the calcium levels drops and cartilage weakens.

Osteoarthritis

Wear and tear arthritis where the hyalin cartilage which makes up the reticular cartilage at the end of the bone begins to wear away because cartilage is avascular and can’t replenish easily

Axial Skeletal Bones

Include cranial, facial, vertebral bones with specific features like sella turcica, parts of the sternum, and rib classifications.

8 cranial bones

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid

14 facial bones

nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, maxillary, palatine, inferior nasal conchae, vomer, mandible

hyoid bone

non-articulating (free-floating) bone in the neck

26 vertebral

7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx

24 ribs

12 pairs of 2, connected by different kinds of cartilage

sternum

flat breastbone containing:

manubrium: suprasternal notch, 2 clavicular notches

body

xiphoid process

sella turcica

located in the body of the sphenoid bone, forms the hypophyseal fossa which supports and protects the pituitary gland

Vertebrosternal

first 7 pairs of ribs are true ribs because attach directly to sternum with costal cartilage

Vertebrochondral

ribs 8-10 are false ribs because connect to vertebrae and costal cartilage of rib 7

Floating ribs

ribs 11-12 are false ribs and don't have any anterior attachment

External auditory meatus (canal)

part of temporal bone in ear

crista galli

part of ethmoid bone that sticks up and is an attachment for meninges 

foramen magnum

“large opening” through occipital bone for spinal cord to travel down

Sutures and Fontanels

Coronal, sagittal, squamous, and lambdoid sutures, along with fontanel locations.

coronal suture

located between frontal and parietal bone

sagittal suture

located between parietal bones

squamous suture

located between parietal and temporal bones on both sides

lambdoid suture

located in back of head, looks like upside down triangle between occipital and parietal bones

fontanelles

soft parts on head when intramembranous ossification hasn’t completed. Allows for compression of head during labor. Soft parts on head when intramembranous ossification hasn’t been completed. Allows for compression of head during labor.

anterior fontanelle

between parietal and frontal bones

posterior fontanelle

between parietal and occipital bones

anterolateral fontanelles (2)

at junction of frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones

posterolateral fontanelles (2)

at junction of occipital, parietal and temporal bones

Classifications of Bones

long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid, and sutural bones with examples.

long bone

Long: length is greater than its width 

Eg: humorous, radius, ulna, meda carpal, phalanges, femur, shin, fibula, metatarsals

short bones

Length and width are approximately equal like 

Eg: carpal (wrist) bones: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform, trapezius, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate

Eg: ankle: Talus, calcaneus, navicular, scaphoid, medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiforms, cuboid

flat bone

bone that has 2 parallel plates of compact bone with spongy bone in between

Eg: sternum, ribs, parietal bones, frontal bones

irregular bones

not long, short, or flat

Eg: vertebrae, hip, facial bones

sesamoid bones

specializes bones found in areas with there’s a lot of pressure an friction

Eg: patellae (knee caps), some have it in base of thumb or big toe

sutral

little bones that develop in suture lines of skull

Parts of Typical Vertebrae

Body, vertebral arches, processes

vertebral arches (2)

made up of peddicles and lamina on left and right sides, they meet and come together at vertebral foramen where spinal cord is

7 processes of typical vertebrae

2 transverse processes, 1 spinous process, 2 superior articulating processes, 2 inferior articulating processes

structure of IVD

fibrocartilage, outer annulus fibrosis and inner nucleus pulposus which is egg-yolk material inside. Its like a jelly donut: firm on outside and soft on inside.

function of IVD

cushion, shock absorber between vertebral bodies

Atypical Vertebrae

Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2) with their unique features.

c1/atlas

lacks body, lacks spinous process, has 2 lateral masses associated with it, anterior and posterior arch

c2/axis

typical vertebrae with everything a regular one has but with a projection called “dens” that atlas pivots around

lower limbs

hip bone, femur bone (thigh bone), patella (knee cap), tibia, fibula (lateral bone), 7 ankle bones: tarsal, talus, calcaneus(heel bone), navicular, 1st, 2nd, 3rd cuneiform, metatarsal, 14 phalange bones(toes).

upper limb

clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius(lateral bone), ulna(medial bone), carpal, metacarpal, 14 phalanges bones(fingers),

acetabulum

lateral side of the hip bone where the head of the femur fits in

Olecranon fossa

distal humerus posterior surface, when we extend the forearm, the olecranon fits in together.

Olecranon

proximal end on the posterior surface of the ulna, tip of the elbow

Glenoid fossa (cavity)

part of the scapula, where the head of the humerus fits in. Little shallow cup socket

Greater trochanter

proximal end of the femur. The muscles attached to it help the movement of the thigh.

trochlear notch

associated with the ulna, proximal, fits to the trochlear at the distal end of the humerus where the hinge joint is.

Medial & lateral malleoli

Medial malleoli → distal tibia, Lateral malleoli → distal fibula. Malleoli → think of the ankle region, ankle joint, between the tibia, fibula, and talus all fit together.

head of the radius

proximal end of the radius, it articulates with the capitulum of the humerus, the movement of the arm pronation & supination happen there

3 structural joints

Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints

fibrous joint

lacks a joint cavity, bones are held together by fibrous connective tissues

ex: sutures of the skull, gomphosis (tooth fits into jawbone), syndesmosis (located on the distal end of the tibia and fibula)

cartilaginous joint

synchondrosis joint: no joint cavity. Bones meeting cartilage.

growth plate. bone → growth plate(cartilage) → bone   

Ex) Rib → costal cartilage → sternum → costal cartilage

symphysis

bones are joined by fibrocartilage, a cushion in between.

ex: Pubic symphysis, intervertebral disc joints

synovial joint

①diarthrosis(freely moveable)

②has joint cavity associated

③ends of the bone is covered with articular cartilage

④surrounded by the articular capsules 

⑤outer layer is fibrous, strong & dens irregular CT

⑥inner layer is made up of synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid(lubricates & nourishes the joints)

⑦has ligaments(bind bone to bone)

⑧some synovial joints have bursa (pl. bursae) which reduces frictions

⑨meniscus(articular discs)

synarthrosis

immobile joints

amphiarthrosis

joints that allow for slight movement

diarthrosis

Freely moveable, the most mobile joints, also known as synovial joints

Ligament Function

Binds bone to bone, providing stability to joints.

Bursa Structure and Function

nickel to a quarter-sized small fluid sac, contains synovial fluid, reduces friction between the tendon & bone, ligament & bone, muscle & bone

bursitis

bursa injury

Types of Movement

Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction, inversion, and eversion with examples.

Adduction

adding something - moving a body part towards the midline

ex: shoulder, hip, fingers if middle is midline

Abduction

abducting something - moving a body part away from the midline.

ex:  shoulder, hip, fingers if middle finger is midline

Circumduction

movement of proximal bone in circle while proximal end remains stable

Ex: shoulder and hip

Inversion

Turning the foot so the sole faces towards the midline.

Eversion

Turning the foot so the sole faces away from the midline.

flexion

decrease in angle between bone 

Ex: forearm going closer to shoulder, fingers, neck when you bring chin to chest, arm at shoulder

extension

increase in angle

Ex: forearm back into position, fingers back into place, toes, knees, hip

Sprain

forcible wrenching or twisting of a joint that stretches or tears its ligaments but does not dislocate the bones. It occurs when the ligaments are stretched beyond their capacity

Strain

stretched or partially torn muscle or muscle and tendon. It often occurs when a muscle contracts suddenly and powerfully

Spina bifida

congenital (present from birth) defect of the vertebral column in which laminae of L5 or S1 fail to develop normally and unite at the midline

Cleft palate

the palatine processes of the maxillary bone fail to unite during weeks 10 to 12 of embryonic development

Scoliosis

Abnormal lateral bending of the vertebral column, usually in thoracic region

Muscle tissue functions

Movement, postural support, organ volume maintenance, thermogenesis.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary, striated muscle connected to the skeleton.