AP US Government and Politics - Unit 2

policymaking institutions

The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues. The U.S. Constitution established three policymaking institutions—Congress, the presidency, and the courts. Today, the power of the bureaucracy is so great that most political scientists consider it a fourth policymaking institution.

Article I

Establishes the Legislative Branch.

coalition

A group of individuals with a common interest on which every political party depends.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislature divided into two houses. The U.S. Congress and all state legislatures except Nebraska's are bicameral.

quorum

The minimum number of people required to be present in order to take action in a legislative body (usually at least 50%).

advise & consent

A power of the Senate whereby they must give approval to some executive actions, such as presidential appointments to the judiciary and treaties with foreign nations.

bill

A proposed law, drafted in legal language. Anyone can draft a bill, but only a member of the House of Representatives or the Senate can formally submit a bill for consideration.

casework

Activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals, particularly by cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get.

closed rule

A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.

cloture

A parliamentary rule that limits debate to no more than one hour per person; requires 3/5 of the body to invoke cloture.

committee chairs

The most important influencers of the congressional agenda. They play dominant roles in scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing committee bills when they are brought before the full house.

committee of the whole

The whole membership of a legislative house (as the House of Representatives) sitting as a committee and operating under informal parliamentary rules.

concurrent resolution

Resolution passed by both houses of Congress to take care of a matter that does not become law (setting the yearly calendar for congress)

conference committees

Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms. Party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill.

discharge petition

Petition that, if signed by majority of the House of Representatives' members, will pry a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration.

filibuster

A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation use their right to unlimited debate to prevent the Senate from ever voting on a bill. Sixty members present and voting can halt a filibuster.

House Rules Committee

The committee in the House of Representatives that reviews most bills coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.

joint committees

Congressional committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn from both houses.

joint resolution

A resolution passed by both houses of congress to take care of an extraordinary measure (approval of a presidential action) or only does so through a process requiring ratification by the states (ex., constitutional amendments).

majority leader

The principal partisan ally of the Speaker of the House, or the party's manager in the Senate. The majority leader is responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes on behalf of the party's legislative positions.

minority leader

The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate.

open rule

A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that permits floor amendments within the overall time allocated to the bill.

pigeonholing

Refers to the action of a committee placing a bill to the side to receive no action; most bills die in committee through inaction (pigeonholing).

pork barrel

Federal projects, grants, and contracts available to state and local governments, businesses, colleges, and other institutions in a congressional district.

president of the senate

Constitutional role for the Vice President to preside over the Senate; can only vote if there is a tie.

president pro tempore

A position held by the highest ranking (longest-seving) member of the majority party; the president pro tempore presides over the Senate in the absence of the VP; he is 4th in line to the presidency in case of death of the president.

roll call vote

A vote taken where each member stands as their name is called alphabetically and speaks their vote on an issue; usually reserved for highly controversial measure as a 'stand and deliver' method of voting.

select committees

Congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as the Watergate investigation.

Senate Majority Leader

Highest position in the Senate and chosen by the majority party caucus; his or her job is to keep the party unified and push the party agenda.

Senate Minority leader

Leader of the minority party in the Senate; chosen by the party caucus. His or her primary roles are to keep the party unified and to offer formal criticisms of majority party bills.

seniority system

A simple rule for picking committee chairs, in effect until the 1970s. The member who had served on the committee the longest and whose party controlled the chamber became chair, regardless of party loyalty, mental state, or competence.

Speaker of the House

An office mandated by the Constitution. The Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line to succeed to the presidency should that office become vacant.

special or select committee

A congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation. (e.g. Watergate).

standing committees

Separate subject-matter committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas.

whips

Party leaders who work with the majority leader or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to a bill favored by the party.

appropriations bill

An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits established by authorization bills. Appropriations usually cover one year.

authorization bill

An act of Congress that establishes, continues, or changes a discretionary government program or an entitlement. It specifies program goals and maximum expenditures for discretionary programs.

budget resolution

A resolution binding Congress to a total expenditure level, supposedly the bottom line of all federal spending for all programs.

budget

A policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).

Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974

An act designed to reform the congressional budgetary process with the goal that it would also make Congress less dependent on the president's budget and better able to set and meet its own budgetary goals.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's Office of Management and Budget.

continuing resolutions

When Congress cannot reach agreement and pass appropriations bills, these resolutions allow agencies to spend at the level of the previous year.

deficit

An excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues.

discretionary spending

Spending about which Congress is free to make choices

expenditures

Government spending. Major areas of federal spending are social services and national defense.

federal debt

All the money borrowed by the federal government over the years and still outstanding.

House Ways and Means Committee

The House of Representatives committee that, along with the Senate Finance Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.

incrementalism

A description of the budget process in which the best predictor of this year's budget is last year's budget, plus a little bit more (an increment). According to Aaron Wildavsky, "Most of the budget is a product of previous decisions."

mandatory spending

Spending on certain programs that is mandated, or required, by existing law.

power of the purse

Because Congress is in charge of appropriating money for government programs, they have a significant power to check presidential action by whether they appropriate money for a program/project or not. This is referenced as the "power of the purse".

reconciliation

A congressional process through which program authorizations are revised to achieve required savings. It usually also includes tax or other revenue adjustments.

revenue bills

Bills to raise revenue for the government (taxes) which must originate in the House according to the Constitution, but must be passed by both houses and signed by the president.

rider

A provision added to a bill that is expected to pass; riders generally do not relate to the subject matter of the bill in question; instead they "ride along" to passage of a popular bill.

Senate Finance Committee

The Senate committee that, along with the House Ways and Means Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.

Sixteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1913 that explicitly permitted Congress to levy an income tax.

tax expenditures

Revenue losses that result from special exemptions, exclusions, or deductions allowed by federal tax law.

uncontrollable expenditures

Expenditures that are determined not by a fixed amount of money appropriated by Congress but by how many eligible beneficiaries there are for a program or by previous obligations of the government.

senatorial courtesy

An unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are usually not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator of the president's party from the state in which the nominee will serve. The tradition also applies to courts of appeals when there is opposition from a senator of the president's party who is from the nominee's state.

policy gridlock

A condition that occurs when interests conflict and no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy, so nothing gets done.

representation

A basic principle of traditional democratic theory that describes the relationship between the few leaders and the many followers.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Legislative redistricting must be conscious of race and ensure compliance with the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

polarization

The extent to which liberals and conservatives occupy the more extreme positions on the liberal-conservative ideological spectrum.

reapportionment

The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census.

gridlock

Inability to accomplish anything because of divided government.

partisanship

Government action based on firm allegiance to a political party.

proportional representation

An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.

party caucus

The formalized group of the party which meets and organizes together to push the party's agenda in the House or Senate.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established the principle of "one person, one vote" and made such patterns of representation illegal. The Court asserted that the federal courts had the right to tell states to reapportion their districts for more equal representation.

gerrymandering

The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent; many forms of gerrymandering have been declared illegal by the courts, but not all.

caucus (congressional)

A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic. Many are composed of members from both parties and from both houses.

models of representative democracy

The different conceptions of Congressional roles as related to constituent accountability.

politico model of representation

Legislators follow their own judgment until the public becomes vocal about a particular matter, at which point they should follow the dictates of constituents; can also lend itself to following the lead of the party.

delegate model of representation

An official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of legislator.

trustee model of representation

The concept of a legislator using their best judgement to make policy in the interest of the people.

logrolling

Mutual aid and vote trading among legislators to encourage support for passing.

nuclear option

A controversial Senate maneuver by which a simple majority could decide to allow a majority to bypass the filibuster for certain kinds of votes.

substantive representation

The extent to which a representative takes on actions on behalf of, in the interest of, as an agent of, or as a substitute for the voters' vierws.

Twenty-Seventh Amendment

Changes to congressional income take effect in the following congressional term.

Article II

Establishes the Executive Branch.

appointment process

Executive power which allows the president to choose who should fill certain positions in the executive and judicial branches; the president appoints with the advice and consent (approval) of the Senate.

cabinet

A group of presidential advisers not mentioned in the Constitution, although every president has had one. Today the cabinet is composed of 14 secretaries, the attorney general, and others designated by the president.

Chief Diplomat

The President is the top foreign policy officer of the United States and oversees all foreign policy and relationships with other countries. An example would be appointing an ambassador to another country or negotiating a treaty. This role is mentioned in the Constitution.

Chief Economic Planner

The President is expected to oversee the economy and recommend ways to improve the economy. He also prepares an annual budget and presents it to Congress for their consideration (they actually pass a budget - he just makes suggestions). He also is expected to prepare an annual report on the economic health of the United States and present it to Congress. This role developed after WWII.

Chief Executive

Role where the President acts as the "boss" of all federal employees and executes/enforces the law. An example would be signing a law passed by Congress or pardoning someone convicted of a federal crime. This role is his primary responsibility since he is to "faithfully execute the law."

Chief Legislator

The President is expected to recommend policy ideas to the Congress to fulfill his goals. An example would be giving the State of the Union address where he outlines what he wants Congress to do in the coming year. This role is referenced in the language of the Constitution.

Chief of State

Ceremonial presidential role in which he stands as a representative of the American people (example - throwing out the first pitch at the World Series). This role blends the role of a King and that of a prime minister. It is a Constitutional role.

Commander-in-Chief

The President is the civilian leader of the military in the United States. He cannot declare war, although he can commit troops to action without a war declaration. It was important to the founders that this role be occupied by a civilian because generals have a tendency to want to go to war. This role is mentioned by name in the Constitution.

executive agreement

An agreement between the president and a foreign head of state; it has the full force and effect of law while that president is in power; often used to conduct foreign policy because it does not require approval from another body in order to take effect.

executive power

The power to execute, enforce, and administer law.

pardon

An official end to punishment. The president can pardon individuals who are accused or convicted of violating federal law. Pardons erase the crime like they never happened. There is no check on this presidential power.

pocket veto

A type of veto occurring when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president and the president simply lets the bill die by neither signing nor vetoing it.

presidential appointment power

The president has the power to appoint the heads of all executive departments, agencies, commissions, ambassadors, federal court judges, etc. with Senate approval and can appoint his personal staff such as Chief of Staff, Press Secretary, etc, without the oversight of the Senate.

State of the Union address

A yearly report by the president to Congress describing the nation's condition and recommending programs and policies.

stewardship theory

Where a president practices a governing style based on belief and they have the duty to do whatever is necessary in national interest, unless prohibited by the Constitution.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

Ratified in 1967, this amendment permits the vice president to become acting president if the vice president and the president's cabinet determine that the president is disabled, and it outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job.

veto

The constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override a veto.

balance of trade

The ratio of what is paid for imports to what is earned from exports. When more is paid than earned, there is a balance-of-trade deficit.

European Union (EU)

A transnational government composed of most European nations that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies, making its members one economic unit.

foreign policy

Policy that involves choice taking about relations with the rest of the world. The president is the chief initiator of U.S. foreign policy.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

A regional organization that was created in 1949 by nations including the United States, Canada, and most Western European nations for mutual defense and has subsequently been expanded.