Psychology Chapter 8 and 9 Exam

prefrontal cortex

necessary for making judgements about behavior and consequences

sympathetic nervous system

prepares the body for stressful or dangerous situations “fight or flight”

parasympathetic nervous system

regulates “rest and digest” functions

James-Lange Theory

Claims that emotional experience results from physiological arousal that precedes it, and different emotions are the result of different patterns of arousal (emotional stimulus → physiological response →affective experience)

Paul Eckman

discovered that some facial expressions of emotion are universal by observing a culturally isolated man from New Guinea convey emotions via facial expression

adrenal glands

part of the sympathetic nervous system, releases various hormones, particularly cortisol

mirror neurons

fire both when we engage in a specific act and while observing the acts of others

cognitive theory of emotion

Schachter and Singer’s theory that the identity of the emotion is based on the cognitive assessment of the situation, and physiological arousal contributes only to the emotions intensity

Schachter and Singer

(cognitive theory) stated that the identity of the emotion is based on the cognitive assessment of the situation, and physiological arousal contributes only to the emotion’s intensity.

limbic system

network of structures arranged around the upper brain stem consisting of the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus

stress

internal/external condition in environment/body that makes unusual demands on an organism

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal-axis

brain region consisting of the hypothalamus, pituitary glands and adrenal glands- responsible for maintaining physiological homeostasis

sensation

the acquisition of sensory information

perception

the interpretation of sensory information

receptor

cell, often specialized neuron, suited by its structure to respond to a specific form of energy, such as the vibration of sound

pinna

flap of the ear that graces the side of the head also called the outer ear

tympanic membrane

very thin membrane stretched across the auditory canal

ossicles

tinny bones in the middle ear that operate in lever fashion to transfer vibrations from tympanic membrane to the cochlea (malleus, incus, and stapes)

eustachian tube

middle ear structure that connects middle ear to the back of the mouth, equalizing air pressure of middle ear with the outside world

cochlear canal

location of auditory receptors which vibrate due to activity in vestibular and tympanic canals

organ of corti

sound analyzing structure that rests on the basilar membrane which consists of four rows of specialized cells called hair cells.

basilar membrane

supports organ of corti

tectorial membrane

membrane above hair cells

inner hair cells

sensory cells that receive 90-95% of auditory neurons

outer hair cells

increase cochlea’s sensitivity both by amplifying its output and sharpening frequency tuning at location of peak vibration

inferior colliculi

involved in sound localization

tonotopically organized

neurons from adjacent receptor locations project to adjacent cells

frequency

the number of times per second that a sound pressure wave repeats itself

pitch

the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a tone

amplitude

the relative strength of sound waves (transmitted vibrations), which we perceive as loudness or volume

loudness

the attribute of a sound that determines the magnitude of the auditory sensation

oval window

a kidney-shaped aperture in the medial wall of the mesotympanum of the middle ear, providing communication with the vestibule of the inner ear

hair cells

specialized inner-ear cells responsible for the transduction of sound-evoked mechanical vibrations into electrical signals that are then relayed to the brain

pathway of soundwaves

pinna → ear canal (external auditory meatus) → tympanic membrane

frequency theory

assumes neurons from adjacent receptor locations project to adjacent cells

telephone theory

early form of frequency theory, developed by William Rutherford that claimed individual neurons in auditory nerves fired at same frequency as rate of vibration of sound source

volley theory

groups of neurons follow frequency of sound at a higher frequency when single neuron cannot

responsible for transduction (transformation of sound into electrical impulses)

cochlea

auditory cortex

located on the superior temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe

aphasia

language impairment caused by damage to the brain

Broca’s aphasia

a non-fluent aphasia in which the output of spontaneous speech is markedly diminished and there is a loss of normal grammatical structure

Wernicke’s aphasia

impaired language comprehension

How have we obtained most of our knowledge on brain structures related to language?

Lesion, neuroimaging, brain stimulation, neuropsychological, and animal studies