unit #2: Ancient Mediterranean

White Temple and its Ziggurat

~3500 - 3000 BCE. Mud brick and bitumen. Uruk, Iraq. 

• City of Uruk was ‘protected’ by Anu, the sky god (roughly the Sumerian equivalent of Zeus)

• Elevated structure built at a high elevation in center of city so that Anu could descend and ‘communicate’ with royalty and clergy in temple

  • THEOCRACY: A god rules while state officials/royalty govern on god’s behalf

  • Temple itself was modestly sized, suggesting that it could only accommodate a couple of people at once (rather than a congregation)

• Temple was once coated with bitumen (a sort of waterproofing cement) to make it white inside and out

  • In the sunlight, a bright white facade would have contrasted heavily with the natural stone

  • Temple also contains a cella (inner area) and several rooms where worshippers would wait for the gods to manifest 

•  The ziggurat (the elevated platform on which the temple was built) was about 40 feet tall, and likely meant to be seen from a great distance away

Tapered sides carved with fluting designed so that rainwater slides off

Palette of King Narmer

~3000 - 2920 BCE. Greywacke. Predynastic Egypt.

• Found in the ritual deposit of a temple in Hierakonpolis (the capital of Predynastic Egypt)

  • Offerings were made by wealthy patrons to temples over several generations. Once the temple ran out of space, the old offerings would be buried. 

• About 2 feet tall and 2-sided: a ceremonial/commemorative version of a usually much smaller tool used for mixing eye makeup (notice the circular indentation on the next slide)

  • Ceremonial versions of palettes like this have been found, and may have been used to ritually apply eye makeup to statues of gods

• Likely a narrative: probably depicts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Narmer, but scholars still cannot agree on the precise event(s) depicted 

  • Likely a composite narrative of events taking place over several decades, as the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt occurred over a similar period of time

  • Many of the aspects of the unification are symbolic (crowns, etc)

• Hierarchy of scale: Narmer towers over his enemies on one side, and dwarfs the figures on the other

• Hieroglyphs indicate Narmer’s name and explain events, though the meanings of some of the glyphs remain unclear

• Figures are grounded on ground line; registers visible

Statues of Votive Figures

~2700 BCE. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone. Square Temple at Eshnunna.

• Hundreds have been found in temples, usually buried beneath the floors (this suggests that they were not meant to be viewed as ‘art’, but had a more representational purpose). Most are between 1 and 2 feet high

• Commissioned by donors to be placed in temples to pray for them in their absence

  • inscriptions: the name of the deity being honored, the donor’s name and occupation,  and inscription “It offers prayers” 

  • arms and hands in praying position; heads tilted slightly upward

  • Hierarchy of scale: HUGE eyes (eternal wakefulness to fulfill prayer duties)

• Thought to have been designed to be likenesses of patrons, some of whom had their names inscribed into the bases. Each statuette bears a small beaker used for libations (ritual water pouring) in their hands

• Works of subtractive sculpture: the negative space between legs (and sometimes negative space between arms and waist) carved out

• Men have rippling beards and wear a belt and skirts from the waist down; women always have one shoulder covered

• Some figures larger than others = social hierarchy?

Seated Scribe

~2620 - 2500  BCE. Painted limestone. Saqqara, Egypt.

• A little over 1.5 ft tall (smaller than life size)

• Buried in a tomb in Saqqara (which explains its excellent condition); created to accompany a high-ranking individual in death

  • Ancient Egyptians believed that items buried with them in death would cross over with them into the afterlife. This included items like food, equipment, and servants

• Extremely lifelike; not glorified or idealized as a pharaoh or other high-ranking individual might be (notice the sagging chest, cross-legged pose,  and lack of muscle definition)

• Unclear whether this was meant to represent a certain scribe or an ‘idealized’ scribe (the base, which may have contained information on the figure’s name, has been lost)

  • Eyes bright and intelligent (most ancient Egyptians were illiterate, and scribes occupied a class of their own), and made with crystal and had painted irises

  • Attentive and ready to write (a writing instrument was once pinched between the fingers)

  • Unraveled strip of papyrus (writing surface) in lap

The Standard of Ur

~2600-2400 BCE. Wood inlaid with lapis lazuli, shell, and red limestone. Royal Tombs at Ur. 

• Found in a royal cemetery among other lavish objects 

• About 20 inches long, and may have been a standard (an image displayed on a pole during a military procession) or perhaps the sound box of a musical instrument

  • The ‘standard’ theory originated from the fact that the object was found near the shoulder of a servant’s body

• Made from very expensive imported materials, which were hand-carved and inlaid onto a wooden base like a mosaic

• Registers (parallel rows) read from bottom to top

• 2 sides show a narrative of sorts:

  • ‘War’ side: likely a border skirmish: the Sumerian king dismounts from his chariot to inspect naked prisoners. Chariots run over the dead in lower registers

  • ‘Peace’ side: food is brought to a feast with musicians while the king sits on a throne, celebrating good bounty

• Hierarchy of scale: the king/ruler is slightly larger than the other figures, even while seated, highlighting his importance

• Figures and animals are in twisted perspective

Great Pyramids and Great Sphinx

~2550 - 2490 BCE. Cut limestone. Giza, Egypt.

• Massive monuments and tombs to deceased pharaohs Menkaure, Khufu, and Khafre (all in the 4th Dynasty)

  • Facade was once covered entirely in a reflective stone facing (most of which is now lost)

• Pyramids likely modeled after the ben-ben, the symbol of the cult of Ra (the Egyptian sun god), and intended to represent the sun

• Each pyramid has an accompanying causeway and mortuary temple (indicating the path that the pharaoh’s body was transported in during burial). 

  • mortuary temples and pyramid entrances were always oriented East (the direction of the sunrise)

  • Valley temples located a ways away from the pyramids provided sites for the deified pharaohs to continue to be worshipped long after their deaths

• Required an extraordinary amount of labor and effort: each of the limestone blocks used in its construction weighed 5,000 pounds or more

  • Builders’ quarters have been excavated on the western side of Khafre’s pyramid, and would have housed thousands of skilled laborers

King Menkaure and Queen

~2490 - 2472 BCE. Greywacke. Giza, Egypt.

• Discovered with a cache of other greywacke sculptures in Menkaure’s valley temple, most of them showing Menkaure flanked by the goddess Hathor and/or nomes (human personifications of regions)

  • This statue is incomplete: the bottom portions are unpolished and lack an inscription

• High relief sculpture carved from a single stone; seemed to be designed so that arms and legs do not have to be cut free from the stone matrix

• Male figure identified as Menkaure, but female figure could either be one of his queens, the queen mother, or a goddess

  • Woman’s gesture is affectionate, signaling marital status or shared divinity, but otherwise the figures do not interact and stare out into space

  • Similar height and frontal stance: individuals depicted are equal in status

• Male figure is idealized (lean, muscular, and ageless), and standing in a canonized ‘pharaoh’ pose (one foot shifted forward with arms/fists at either side of the body)

  • Wearing the nemes headdress and a false beard: symbols of royalty

• Statue may have served as a vessel for the ka, or spirit, and intended to be a timeless and eternal monument

• Originally painted (probably with intent that it would wear away and reveal the dark stone underneath, emulating the black skin of Osiris, the god of the underworld)

Stele of Hammurabi

~1792 - 1750 BCE. Basalt. Set up in Babylon; found in Susa.

• ~1160 BCE an Elamite king took the stele from Babylon as war booty and brought it to Susa (in Iran)

• Text is in Akkadian language, read from right to left and top to bottom (51 columns of text)

• Some use of foreshortening (creating depth): Shamash’s hair and beard have lines at a slight angle (not flat), suggesting that they are going back into space

• Inscriptions state Hammurabi’s law code (~300 laws)

• Shamash (the god of the sun) sits on a ziggurat throne flanked by thunderbolts and presents King Hammurabi with the symbols of authority

  • Shamash wears a tiara with four rows of horns; his beard is fuller than Hammurabi’s, indicating his high status

  • Hammurabi has speaking/greeting gesture

  • Hierarchy of scale: even when sitting, Shamash is taller than Hammurabi

  • Symbols of authority: a measuring rod and a coiled rope, both of which are construction tools (Shamash is imbuing Hammurabi with the tools to construct and maintain social order)

Temple of Amun-Ra and Hypostyle Hall

1550 - 1250 BCE. Cut sandstone and mud brick. Karnak, Egypt.

• Principal religious center dedicated to Amun-Ra and other gods: intended to be a place where the gods could dwell on Earth and receive tributes from resident priests

  • Symbolic residence for gods; literal residence and working estate for priest community 

• located between Thebes (a sacred ancient Egyptian city that gained importance during the New Kingdom) and the Nile

• Building started during Middle Kingdom, and successive pharaohs added to the complex until it became one of the largest religious complexes in the world (~1000 ft long)

• Morphology of temple intended to represent the primeval waters of creation according to ancient Egyptian belief

• Axial plan: temple is organized along vertical (up and down) and horizontal (left to right) axes

• Hypostyle Hall: rows of tightly arranged columns held together with stone lintels (remember: post and lintel). The tallest columns stand at ~70 feet high

  • Clerestory: elevated windows that allow sunlight to illuminate an interior

  • Columns bear sunken reliefs that were once painted

  • tall columns: papyrus capitals; short columns: lotus capitals

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

~1473-1458 BCE. Sandstone and red granite. Luxor, Egypt.

• Carved directly out of the side of a massive sandstone cliff, emulating the natural horizontal and vertical lines of the cliffs in its terraced columnar structure (the temple is as stable as the mountain itself)

• 3 columned terraces connected by 2 ramps. Terraces were originally planted as gardens with exotic trees

• Temple was decorated with extensive reliefs that celebrated Hatshepsut’s achievements as the pharaoh-queen (the first time the achievements of a woman are celebrated in art history)

• Served as a place where she could continue to be admired and deified after her death

• Queens would oftentimes rule as regents if their husband died and their son was still too young to assume the throne. 

  • Hatshepsut started off as a regent to her stepson Thutmose III, and remained in power until her death at the end of her 20 year reign

• STATUE: As many as 200 statues depicting supersized images of Hatshepsut decorated the temple, including a set of 10 red granite statues depicting her 9 ft tall kneeling with offering jars (see right)

  • Male pharaohic attributes likely invoked to legitimize her rule: kilt, false beard, and headdress with uraeus cobra; slender and semi- androgynous figure  (Hatshepsut frequently referred to as “His Highness, Herself”)

  • Statues were heavily damaged during Thutmose III’s reign, especially in areas symbolizing power (beard, headdress): this was possibly an attempt to erase her from the historical record

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters

~ 1353-1335 BCE. Limestone. 

• Akhenaten’s reign marked a brief period of deviation from the Egyptian canon: he imposed a shift in the state religion that declared Aten as the sole god,  and stated that Aten spoke to him and his queen alone 

  • Moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna (hence the Amarna Period)

  • Changes to canon: smoother contours, slack jaws, thin limbs and low hanging bellies, epicene (sex- ambiguous) bodies, heavily lidded eyes (‘relaxed’ traits): all of which were intended to distance this new style from traditional Egyptian artistic conventions

• Sunken relief scene depicts a degree of domesticity and intimacy between Akhenaten, Nefertiti, their daughters, and their new god Aten: at this point unprecedented in Egyptian art, especially of royalty

  • This relief was found in a house in Amarna, which is consistent with the informality and domesticity of the scene

• Would have likely been used as a means to ‘normalize’ the Amarna style to the general public

• Aten represented by sun disk with cobra and light-giving rays, with the symbol of the ankh pointing towards the king & queen

Innermost Coffin of Tutankhamun

1323 BCE. Gold with inlay of enamel and semi-precious stones. 

• Extraordinarily rare find made by Howard Carter in 1922: virtually all royal Egyptian tombs have been plundered and looted at some point, but this tomb was remarkably intact

• One of three coffins surrounding Tutankhamun’s body. The other two were covered in gold leaf, but the innermost coffin is ~6.5 ft long and made of ~500 pounds of solid gold (!)

  • The ancient Egyptians ritually prepared and interred the bodies of pharaohs as a part of a complex set of rituals to guide the pharaoh to the afterlife

  • Vulture and winged snake motifs on torso represent goddesses (Nekhbet and Wadjet) who both protect the body and aid Tut’s passage to the underworld

  • Two more goddesses--Isis and Nephthys--are etched into the gold lid

  • Shows a deified Tutankhamun with gold skin and a crook and flail held in hands across chest (symbolizes divine right to rule)

• Death mask (head and shoulders) is also solid gold, and was placed directly over the mummified body inside the innermost coffin

  • false beard, headdress, and vulture and cobra motifs on the brow are symbols associated with the pharaoh and his deification after death

  • The back is inscribed with spells from the Book of the Dead

  • Inlay: lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian

Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer

1275 BCE. Painted papyrus scroll. 

• Papyrus: a paper made from reeds 

• Part of the Book of the Dead, an instructional manual that was frequently buried with pharaohs to help them travel to the afterlife

• Scroll depicts a narrative of Hu-Nefer’s journey: he is lead by Anubis to a scale, where his heart is weighed against the Feather of Maat (truth). Thoth records. 

  • Anubis: god of embalming

  • Thoth: god of writing/hieroglyphs 

  • Ammit (crocodile-lion-hippo chimaera) stands by to eat the heart if it is heavy with sin

  • If his heart is light, Hu-Nefer is escorted to Osiris, the God-King of the Dead, and subjected to his time of judgement before he is permitted to enter the afterlife

  • Hieroglyphs narrate the scene

  • Twisted perspective

  • A continuous narrative: the same figures appear multiple times in the same image

Lamassu

~720 - 705 BCE. Alabaster. Citadel of Sargon II, Iraq. 

• Each is monumental in size (almost 14 ft tall)

• These sculptures were hauled to the citadel using ropes and sledges: a feat so noteworthy that there are some relief sculptures documenting the event

• Chimaeras: the face of a man, wearing jewelry and a crown flanked by horns, the body of a bull, and the wings of an eagle. Strength of mind, strength of body, and the ability to fly = a perfect sentinel. 

• 5 legs (2 visible from front view, 4 from side view): from front they appear to be standing at attention; the profile view makes them appear to be walking. 

• Intended to support a gate as well as protect the 7-walled citadel they were installed in (the Assyrians were very paranoid and always wary of attack)

  • Repetition and symmetry; calm expression: harmony; stability

  • Size/scale: intimidation factor (wards off enemies)

  • Apotropaic: having the power to ward off evil or bad luck

• An inscription between the two hind legs of each of the sculptures praises the king and his virtues, and threatens damnation upon any who seek to harm the king or the citadel (the symbol of his power).

Athenian Agora

~600 - 150 BCE. Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. Plan.

• Destroyed when Athens was sacked by the Persians, then rebuilt and remodeled during Classical and Hellenistic eras. 

• Agora: a public outdoor plaza used for commercial, civic, religious, and social functions. Initially, the agora served a more commercial purpose, then accumulated government buildings and sacred spots (temples)

  • Location of the Panatheniac Festival (an annual celebration honoring Athena, the patron goddess of Athens)

  • The structure and fixtures of the agora were built to support democracy

• Several key features:

  • Temples: dedicated to various gods and goddesses

  • Panathenaic Way: pathway used during Panathenaic procession

  • Bouleuterion: chamber used by a council of citizens

  • Tholos: place where senators held emergency meetings

  • Stoa: covered walkway with columns on one side and a wall on the other

Anavysos Kouros

~530 BCE. Marble with remnants of paint. Athens. 

• ‘Kouros’ (literally ‘youth’) is typically a designation used for sculptures of male youths made during the Archaic Period

  • A general representation of an ideal warrior rather than a strict portrait: muscular, lean, and fit

• Intended to mark a grave (probably one of an athlete or warrior), though some kouros statues were made as offerings to gods or intended to represent gods

  • An inscription accompanies this statue that reads “stay and mourn at the monument of dead Kroisos, who raging Ares slew as he fought in the front ranks.”

• Pose reminiscent of ancient Egyptian figure sculptures (one leg forward, arms at sides), though this figure is nude and in the round (cut completely free of the stone matrix)

  • Iron tools make shaping harder stones like marble possible

  • Rigid frontal pose with well-defined muscles

  • Archaic smile: meant to give sculpture lifelike qualities

• Knotted hair with neatly braided rows cascading down the back (potential influence from Mesopotamia?)

• Statue was once painted (notice remnants of red pigment in hair)

Peplos Kore

~530 BCE. Marble with remnants of paint. Athens. 

• ‘Kore’ is typically a designation used for sculptures of female youths (‘maidens’) made during the Archaic Period

• Intended to mark a grave (probably of a woman), or perhaps a votive offering or an altar for a goddess. Found buried in the Acropolis in three pieces: may have been damaged during the Persian siege of Athens and then ritually buried when temples and statuary were rebuilt

• Left arm is missing from socket. It likely projected forward toward the viewer, breaking the convention of the typical Archaic statue. She may have also held an attribute that identified her as a goddess (such as a bow for Artemis, an apple for Aphrodite, etc.)

• Wears a peplos shawl (for which she is named). Waist is cinched; breasts slightly visible beneath drapery

• Rigid frontal pose is more static than the Anavysos Kouros: perhaps depicting a figure that is not grounded by mortality (goddess theory)

• Face is rounded with naturalistic features and an Archaic smile

• Knotted hair with neatly braided rows cascading down the shoulders 

• Statue was once painted (notice remnants of red pigment in hair, eyes, and lips). A possible reconstruction of the statue is pictured at top left, complete with a bronze headdress, earrings, and lapels

Sarcophagus of the Spouses

~520 BCE. Terracotta. 

• Sarcophagus: coffin intended to hold human remains

  • This sarcophagus holds the ashes of a married couple

• Greatest emphasis on upper body/torso region

  • Hands are thin, and at one point held objects (likely eggs, which were a symbol of the afterlife in Etruscan art)

  • Made of terracotta in 4 parts

  • Little anatomical modeling: muscle groups and                          skulls do not appear to have been sculpted using a  model and/or reference (very similar to Archaic Greek)

• Legs bend at the waist in an unnatural L-shape,   making the figures appear as if they were reclining

  • Banquet couch (triclinium) a common Etruscan fixture

• Statue shows a relationship(symbiosis) and mutual respect between Etruscan men and women

  • Women had more status in Etruscan society than Greek women did

Apadana (Audience Hall) of Darius and Xerxes

~520 - 465 BCE. Limestone. Persepolis (Pārsa), Iran.

• Complex on an elevated plateau overlooking a plain (a ‘Royal Hill’ serving as the ceremonial center and citatel of the city and an administrative and economic center for the Persian Empire)

• Audience hall (apadana) intended to awe and impress: massive space used for receptions and festivals. About 10,000 people could stand in the audience hall alone

• Originally had 72 columns (14 remain standing today) that were almost 65 ft high, each bearing a capital (column ‘topper’) with a two- headed griffin, bull, eagle, lion, or man-headed bull: symbols of kingly authority and leadership

• Roof was timber (imported from Lebanon) and sealed with plaster

  • Hypostyle: tightly packed columns to create an interior space

• Relief sculptures on terrace and stairs depict a procession of Persian nobles, dignitaries, and guards, as well as members of 23 subject nations bearing tributes to the Persian kings

• Cosmopolitan, yet organized: suggests harmony and stability while also conveying that the Persian Empire held total and absolute power

• Sacked by Alexander the Great ~330 BCE, symbolizing the Greek overthrow of the Persian Empire

Temple of Minerva and Sculpture of Apollo

~510-500 BCE. Temple: mud brick or tufa and wood. Statue: terracotta, likely made by Vulcan of Veii.  Veii, Italy. 

• The design of this temple (from what we know about it) seems to have been heavily influenced by early Greek architecture (note the use of the pediment and columns)

• What we know about this temple (which no longer exists) comes down to us from the Roman architect Vetruvius (who was active during the 1st century BCE)

• Temple was raised on a plinth (podium) and bore three large entrances, each of which lead to a small room (cella)

• Columns are slightly different from those of the Doric order (referred to as ‘Tuscan order’): Etruscans appropriated Doric columns, but added bases

• Apollo: god of archery, prophecy, healing, music and dance, archery, etc. The Etruscans called him Apulu

• STATUE: one of four that were once placed on the temple roof to demonstrate the gods that were being honored within

  • Forward stride and archaic smile reminiscent of Kouros figures

  • Figure is clothed (typical in Etruria for both men and women)

  • According to Vetruvius, the narrative at the top of the temple included 4 figures and depicted one of Hercules’ labors, the capture of the Golden Hind. The sculpture of Apollo is the best preserved of the four

Tomb of the Triclinium

~480-470 BCE. Tufa (porous, limestone-like rock) and fresco. Tarquinia, Italy. 

• Named after the scene that appears in the fresco painted on the tomb’s walls (three klinai, or banqueting couches)

• Scenes are lively and joyful, and frequently depict couples dining and dancing together

  • Couples and individuals on klinai 

  • Men painted darker than women

  • Dancing figures play instruments 

  • Setting is likely rural: trees and shrubs interrupting figures and heavily integrated into background

  • Ceiling is adorned with checkerboard pattern and circles. Circles may symbolize time; cycle of life

• Many tomb walls in Etruria share common theme: celebrating the life of the individuals through music/ dance

  • Figures may be having a funeral banquet, but overall mood is festive rather than focused on mourning

Niobid Krater

Niobid Painter. ~460-450 BCE. Clay, red-figure technique with white highlights.

• Vessels like this were thrown on a pottery wheel , then burnished (polished) to create a smooth surface for painting

• Found in Italy (not Greece): suggests that these objects were traded over some distance

• Red-figure technique: black used to fill in negative space and create detail/contour lines on figures

• Krater: large vessel used to store and/or mix water and wine

• On one side: cautionary tale of Niobe

  • Niobe bragged that she had more children than the god Leto, so Leto sent their children (Apollo and Artemis) to kill Niobe’s twelve children (punishment for hubris, or arrogance/ unchecked pride)

• On other side: we’re not quite sure

  • Could be the demigod Hercules (or a statue of Hercules) surrounded by warriors at arms (either asking for protection or success in battle) and Athena (goddess of wisdom)

• One of the first times we see isocephalism (having all figures with their heads on the same level with no one clear ground line) not followed: this suggests an attempt at creating spatial depth

• From the Early Classical period: transition to more naturalized, less stiff figures (transitioning out of twisted perspective) existing in 3D space

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)

Polykleitos. ~450-440 BCE (original). Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze).

• Originally a bronze cast sculpture that was made into several marble copies by the Romans, who thought of the Greeks as representing a luxurious and leisurely lifestyle

  • This is the most complete copy of this statue left, which was found in a gymnasium in Pompeii and meant to serve as an ideal for athletes to aspire to

• Closed, firm stance, with contrapposto pose evoking a sense of asymmetrical balance (flexed vs. relaxed)

• Notice the areas on the left where the arm is held to the body and the leg is attached to the base of the sculpture (this was to ensure structural soundness/reduce risk of breakage) 

• Embodies Polykleitos’ highly idealized human body, including the 7-heads proportion and ‘perfect’ pose: this is an impossible, aspirational figure

• Once carried a spear in the left hand (and likely carried a shield on the right arm as well)

• This work shows a marked transition between Archaic styles (which use more rigid, frontal poses and less anatomical modeling) and Classical styles in Greece, and signals an ever-growing understanding of the human body

The Athenian Acropolis

Ikintos and Kallikrates. ~447-410 BCE. Marble. Athens, Greece.

• Includes (among other things) the Parthenon, the Temple of Athena Nike, and three statues:

  • Nike Adjusting her Sandal

  • The Plaque of the Ergastines

  • Helios, Horses, and Dionysus 

• Located above the Athenian Agora in Athens, Greece on a hilltop: meant to be the highest, most central point in the city and the ritual and political center of Athens

• Built after the Persians sacked Athens (and the Greeks won it back) under the direction of Pericles after the original Acropolis was destroyed

  • Pericles used tributes from Athenian allies (members of the Delian League) to build and furnish the Acropolis: an action that outraged non-Athenians)

  • Its fragmentary state is due to the age of the structure, the fact that many other nations colonized Greece and reappropriated many of the structures for other purposes, and excavations that have removed key components of the structure and its statuary from the site

Grave Stele of Hegeso

Attributed to Kallimachos. ~410 BCE. Marble and paint.

• Whereas people in the Archaic period used the kouros and kore figures to mark graves, Classical Greeks used stelae that very much resemble headstones or crypt statues that we might see in western cemeteries today

• Inscription above the figures identifies Hegeso (the commemorated individual) and her father. Women were usually identified by their relation to men (wife/daughter/etc)

• Hegeso was the daughter of a wealthy man: she is sitting on a lavish stool and is admiring the jewelry presented to her by her maidservant (who is dressed much more plainly than her mistress). Jewelry may represent her dowry.

• Scene is closed, private, and domestic, reflecting the setting that Hegeso might have occupied (and seldom left) during life. Men’s grave stelae at the time showed them out in public and/or acting as warriors, which contrasts sharply with this scene and emphasizes the idea that men and women had different societal expectations and roles

Winged Victory of Samothrace

~190 BCE. Marble.

• Over 9 ft tall: grand scale and opulence

• Found in the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on the island of Samothrace at the top of a two-tiered fountain that was created to emulate the prow of a ship breaking through the waves (see next slide)

  • Wet drapery (possibly to parallel water elements of fountain)

  • Statue may have commemorated a naval victory or served as an offering to the gods to protect soldiers and sailors

• MOVEMENT!!!: the wind seems to cause her clothes to billow and sweep in the wind and catch under her wings, while the garment bunches around her leg as she appears to move forward

  • Dramatic use of negative space

• Contrapposto and twisting of torso creates drama

• Heavily damaged, but hands may have once held a victory crown and/or a welcoming/open gesture

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena

~175 BCE. Marble. Pergamon, Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey)

• Altar placed on top of a platform elevated by a massive flight of stairs (meant to be monumental)

• Monument supported by ionic columns

• The monument is wrapped in a frieze that is almost 8ft tall and extends horizontally more than 400 feet, decorated by high reliefs of larger-than-life figures

  • Frieze depicts the gods conquering over the giants in a bid to control the earth (gigantomachy: fighting/war with giants)

  • At right: Athena grabs the head of a giant as Nike flies in to crown her; Gaia emerges from the ground and gasps in horror

  • Conquered giants and humans express pain and anguish

  • Intended to parallel the conflict and subsequent victories of Greeks over their enemies, including those over the Persians and the Gauls

House of the Vettii

~300-200 BCE; rebuilt ~70 BCE. Cut stone and fresco. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman.

• A particularly lavish and large Greek-inspired Roman home (domus) in Pompeii, with plenty of space for servants/slaves and storage

• House was owned by two brothers, who were freedmen and had likely made their lucrative living as wine merchants

  • An earthquake about 15 years before the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius sent many wealthy families out of Pompeii, leaving room for new wealth to come in

  • Entrance was narrow, as house was located in between several shops

  • Entrance opens up to an atrium area (which was open to the sky) with an impluvium (basin for collecting rainwater) and several cubicula (bedrooms)

  • The brothers would have received clients in their home, and would have had to impress said clients by showing off their wealth and taste. Two strongboxes (the ancient Roman equivalent of a safe) were found near the entrance for such a purpose

• House lacked exterior windows, lending a sense of privacy to the residence. Light came from open-air atrium and peristyle (open-air courtyard)

  • Peristyle garden in rear of house held statues and fountains

Alexander Mosaic

~100 BCE. Mosaic. The House of Faun, Pompeii. Republican Roman.

• Mosaic was likely made based off of a Greek mural made ~310 BCE (which has since been lost), and found installed in the floor of the House of Faun, the largest house in Pompeii

  • The fact that this image was replicated in a Roman house adds to evidence that the Romans highly revered and respected the Greeks, their art, and their military might

• Chaotic depiction of the Battle of Issus, where Alexander the Great defeated the Persians and forced their king Darius III to retreat

  • Incredible demonstration of perspective: horses are shown from multiple angles and sometimes using foreshortening

  • Highlights on Alexander and Darius’ armor single the figures out in the chaos

  • Figures are rounded and show tonal gradations, demonstrating an understanding of forms

• Alexander is depicted as calm, collected, and focused in battle, while Darius (with whom he is making eye contact) is horrified as one of his guards is impaled with a spear in front of him and commands his charioteer to drive the horses so that he can make his escape

  • Darius’s guard appears to have leaped in front of Alexander’s spear, taking the blow for his commander

Seated Boxer

~100 BCE. Bronze.

• Bronze sculptures are rare nowadays, as most were melted down for scrap. This sculpture was found in a Roman bath, but most surviving bronzes were found in shipwrecks.

• May have been part of a group of sculptures at some point, and would have had eyes made out of stone or glass

• Nude save for leather thongs wrapped around his hands (the ancient equivalent of boxing gloves)

• A Hellenistic twist on a favorite Classical subject: the athlete

  • This boxer is past his prime and bears marks of defeat: cauliflower ears, broken nose and teeth, and blood on his face and hands (depicted using copper)

  • Looks up to an unseen opponent in defeat

  • Not as youthful as the ‘typical’ Classical athlete

• Reflects Hellenistic trend of evoking heavy emotion while also capitalizing upon use of negative space

• Feet show signs of wearing, especially at toes: athletes may have kissed or touched statue for good luck

Head of a Roman Patrician

~75-50 BCE. Marble. Republican Roman.

• Veristic (natural and ‘real’) bust portraits of noblemen were common in the Roman Republic

  • Realism likely influenced by Hellenistic Greek sculpture as well as Roman ideals of power and prestige (which focused on the idea of age and experience  = wisdom). The features were very likely enhanced to make the sitter appear older (and, therefore, seem wiser)

• Pinching of brows; stoic expression may have been intended to suggest that the individual was tenacious and unwavering

  • Ideal senators exhibited gravitas (seriousness of mind) and virtus (virtue)

• Many aristocratic Romans commissioned busts to be made of themselves to be displayed in the home for posterity. Sometimes the heads were placed on Classically idealized bodies or ‘carried’ by statues of the sitter’s descendant

  • Ancestral lineage was particularly important for Roman aristocrats: one often relied on the success of their ancestors to obtain positions in government, and people without such connections would have commissioned portraits like this to boost their reputation and make themselves seem more established than they actually were

Augustus (Octavian) of Prima Porta

~20 CE. Marble (copy of a bronze original). 

• At this point in time art was frequently used as a propaganda tool, especially by emperors, to gain public notoriety and favor

  • Sculptures of emperors oftentimes included inscriptions describing the emperor’s achievements and contributions towards public projects, sometimes exaggerating facts to flatter them

• Figure is highly idealized to depict Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire, at the prime of his life: he is both physically (as suggested by the musculature and the breastplate, which marks him as a warrior) as well as mentally fit (judge’s robes around his lower torso; hand in orator’s pose)

  • Youthful face with individual, recognizable features

  • Breastplate contains imagery that suggests that the gods are on Augustus’ side and illustrate Augustus’ greatest achievements (prosperity/Pax Romana, conquest of new lands, diplomacy)

• Cupid and dolphin flank the right leg, heralding to Augustus’s divine descent from the goddess Venus as well as his naval victory that lead to the reunification of the Roman Empire and Pax Romana (Roman peace)

• Classical conventions: contrapposto; idealized body (notable because Augustus would have been middle-aged by the time this image was completed)

• Barefoot (suggests that he is standing on sacred ground)

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

72 - 80 CE. Stone and concrete. Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman.

• Constructed to host elaborate spectacles: reenactments of famous battles, gladiator matches, fights with wild beasts, executions, etc.

  • First patron of the Colosseum was Emperor Vespasian (who was probably looking for social and political favor after several years of unrest under Emperor Nero, who was deeply unpopular), but he did not live to see the work to completion

• Liberal use of arches, barrel vaults, and groin vaults to support structure and form 76 entrances, with tiers adorned by engaged columns with varying capital motifs (Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian, flattened Corinthian)

  • Built to accommodate > 50,000 spectators (!), with raised seating. The most expensive seats were closest to the arena floor, whereas the cheaper seats were set further back

  • The Romans appropriated the structure of the Greek theater (which was usually set into a cliff) to make a free-standing structure with a 360-degree view of the spectacles (aka an amphitheater)

  • Area below amphitheater: subterranean vault (stocks where prisoners, gladiators, and wild animals were kept)

  • Flagstaffs at top once supported the velarium, a canvas roof used to shield the crowd from the sun

  • Once faced with marble, but most was removed and recycled during the Middle Ages

Forum of Trajan

Apollodorus of Damascus. ~110 CE. Brick and concrete (architecture), marble (column). Rome, Italy. 

• Trajan was Rome’s emperor from 98-117 CE, and is credited with being one of Rome’s most prolific, successful, and well-liked emperors (he was a skilled militaryman and expanded Rome’s borders to their furthest extent)

• The Forum of Trajan (as well as the column, market complexes, and basilica) was built to commemorate Trajan’s success and serve as the civic, judicial, and social heart of Rome

  • Intended to show Rome’s stability, power, and might, and continue the tradition of civic architectural projects that began in the Imperial period

  • Built using war booty collected from Trajan’s victory over the Dacians (people from modern-day Romania)

  • Forum: a public, urban square used to conduct civic and ritual business (similar to the Greek agora)

• A ceremonial entrance once lead into the forum (see artist’s depiction on coin), and featured an image of Trajan being flanked by Victory

  • A shrine devoted to the deified Emperor Trajan may have also existed at the site (either behind the Column of Trajan or near the entrance to the Forum)

The Pantheon

• Combination of Greek facade elements in porch (pediment, Corinthian column capitals, frieze) and Roman interior with rounded dome

  • Coffers: concentric squares used to reduce weight of ceiling. Were once painted and adorned with gilded rosettes

  • Cupola: hemispherical dome, whose wall was 20 ft thick at base to support its own weight. Thickness decreases with height, and the materials used are lighter towards the top

  • Oculus: 27 ft tall hole in top of building allows light and air to flood the space. Also functioned as a sundial!

• Brilliantly and ornately decorated, with tiled floors and a painted ceiling with niches for statues of gods and deified emperors

• Would go on to influence many buildings during the Italian Renaissance

• Became a place for Catholic worship as well as a burial place for several Italian kings (and Raphael)

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

~250 CE. Marble. Late Imperial Roman.

• Sarcophagi became more popular during the late Imperial period, as Romans sometimes preferred to be buried intact rather than cremated, as was custom before

• Extremely crowded composition (horror vacui) with figures piled on top of one another, which emulated confusion and chaos of battle 

  • Depicts members of the Roman army (who are clean-shaven and bear armor and weapons) conquering barbarians (who are bearded, unarmed, lack armor, and have puffy noses and faces), evoking a sense of dehumanization of the enemy and glorification of the victor

  • Roman without weapons or armor/helmet in top center: intended to be depicted as youthful and invincible

• Subject matter reflective of the time period: conquest and subjugation; struggling to maintain an upper hand as the Roman Empire begins its decline

  • Era of stability and prosperity under the first Roman emperors has passed, and Rome enters a period of instability, civil wars, conflict with neighbors, etc.

  • Figures are oftentimes not well-proportioned nor abide by a consistent rule of perspective, which adds to a sense of confusion