Human Development Final

Concerete Operational Stage

Piaget’s Stage (ages 7-11)

Children gain logical thinking about concrete events.

Kids start thinking more logically, but only about real stuff they can see and touch.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s Final Stage (12+ years)

• Abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning develops

• Youths can think about possibilities, test hypotheses systematically, and plan for the future

Theory of Mind

The understanding that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions different from one’s own.

• Realizing that other people can think differently than you do.

Three Mountain Study

Younger children (pre-operational) struggle with egocentrism

Older children (concrete operational) succeed

• A test to see if kids understand that other people see things differently.

Scale Experiment

Kids use a mini model to figure out where is hidden-

Little kids have a hard time, bigger kids get it.

Play

Play develops from solitary play (playing alone) —> parallel play (playing side-by-side without interaction) —> associative play (interacting without organized goals) —→ cooperative play (working together towards shared goals)

• Little kids start by playing alone, then next to others, and later actually playing together.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions that are intended to benefit others.

• Being nice to others (like helping or sharing) starts around age 2.

Dominance Hierarchy

A ranking system among peers based on power and status.

• Kids picking who's in charge and who people want to be friends with.

• Higher-status kids are more influential and more friend

Four Popularity Statuses

Popular = everyone likes them.

Rejected = everyone dislikes them.

Neglected = no one notices them much.

Controversial = some love them, some hate them.

Bully Predictors

Bullies can be smart socially but mean, and often have tough home environments.

Victim Predictors

Victims are often withdrawn, and have few friends, making them easy targets.

Bully interventions

Punishing bullies doesn't always work. Teaching kids emotional skills (SEL) and changing the school rules (OBPP) work better.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative = Warm but set clear rules ("I love you, but there are rules.")

Authoritarian = Strict and cold. Expect obedience. ("Because I said so!")

Permissive = Loving but no rules ("Do whatever you want!")

Neglectful = Not around much ("Figure it out yourself.")

Bidirectional

Relationship is not just parent —> child.

• Parents shape their kids, but kids also change how parents act.

Three Parts of Emotions

• Physiological arousal (body reactions, like heart rate increase)

• Behavioral expressions (facial expressions, actions)

• Cognitive appraisal

Feelings have 3 parts — your body reacts, you show it, and you think about it.

Emotion Processing

Your brain (limbic system) and body (nervous system) team up to make you feel stuff.

Six Basic Emotions

The six basic emotions are happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust.

• They emerge early in life (by about 6–12 months)

• Believed to be universal across cultures + communicates needs

Display Rules

Each culture has its own "rules" for what feelings you’re supposed to show (or hide).

Ideal Affect

"Ideal affect" = how you wish you felt.

• Tsai et al. (2007) —> Americans want to be super happy; Asians prefer to feel chill.

Social Referencing

Babies caregivers' emotional reactions to figure out how to react (scary or safe).

Visual-Cliff Paradigm

Babies used their mom’s face to decide if they should crawl over a fake cliff.

Emotional Synchrony

Emotional synchrony is when two people (often a caregiver and child) match each other's emotions — smiling together, frowning together

• Helping build attachment and social understanding

Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation is the ability to monitor, evaluate, and adjust emotional reactions to achieve goals or respond appropriately.

Emotion Regulation Techniques

• Distraction (focusing attention elsewhere)

• Cognitive reappraisal (reframing a situation positively)

• Suppression (inhibiting emotional expression)

• Seeking social support (getting help from others).

  Ways to handle feelings: get distracted, think differently, hide it, or get help.

Gender Identity

Gender identity is a personal sense of being male, female, or something else.

• Awareness typically emerges between 18–30 months

• labeling themselves as boys or girls around 2–3 years old

• Understanding that gender is stable over time (gender constancy) around 5–7 years.

Gender Segregation

Kids start hanging out mostly with their own gender by preschool (4-6), and boys especially stick with boys.

Piaget’s Constructivist Theory of Gender Identity Development

Children actively construct their understanding of gender through experience, exploration, and social interaction

• Not just from adult teachings

Culture and Gender Identity Development

Culture teaches kids what boys and girls "should" do

• If a culture is more chill about it, kids tend to be happier and do better.

Racial-Ethnic Identity - Developmental Trajectory

• Awareness of racial-ethnic identity begins around 2–4 years old (noticing racial differences)

• strengthens by 5–8 years (understanding societal meaning of race)

• Becomes more complex during adolescence

Four Approaches to Racial-Ethnic Socialization

• Cultural Socialization = "Be proud of where you come from!" (Good for confidence)

• Preparation for Bias = "The world isn't always fair, here's how to deal." (Good for coping)

• Promotion of Mistrust = "Watch out for people not like us." (Can make kids more anxious)

• Egalitarianism = "Everyone's the same!" (Feels nice, but sometimes misses real problems)

Concept of Adolescence

A hundred years ago, you were an adult at 13 or 14 —> now being a teen is a whole separate thing because of school, jobs, and society changes.

Human Growth vs. Other Species

Humans take way longer to grow up compared to animals like chimps — more time to learn stuff and grow smarter.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The parts that make babies.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits not directly involved in reproduction that signal sexual maturity

(boobs or a deeper voice or hair)

Timing of Puberty

Girls typically start puberty earlier than boys

• Girls’ onset around 8–13 years

• boys’ around 9–14 years.

Biological Process of Puberty

Puberty triggered by the hypothalamus —>

signaling the pituitary gland - releases hormones (like growth hormone, LH, FSH) —>

that stimulate the gonads (ovaries/testes) - produces sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone)

Predictors of Puberty Onset

Predictors include genetics, body weight , nutrition, stress, and environmental factors.

• Poor kids often start earlier

Mismatch Model

The limbic system (emotion and reward center) matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex (self-control and decision-making center)

• leading to impulsive, risky behavior.

• Emotions before self-control

Chein et al. (2011) Stoplight Study

Teens take more dumb risks when their friends are around.

Casey and Claude (2013) Go/No-Go Study

Teens had a harder time than adults at inhibiting responses when emotions are involved

• indicating immature self-control especially when emotions are high

• Teens struggle to control themselves, especially when their feelings get stirred up.

Happiness in Adolescence

Teens are usually less happy than kids because life gets harder, and they start overthinking everything.

Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood

Kids start evaluating themselves more in school and sports around 7–11 years old.

• Boys often feel better about themselves, especially in sports, because of what society tells them.

Factors Associated with Child Self-Esteem

High self-esteem:

• Supportive parenting, positive peer relationships, realistic self-appraisal, and opportunities for success

• Negative feedback

  • bullying, and unrealistic expectations can lower self-esteem.

Techniques for Increasing Child Self-Esteem

• Providing specific praise focused on effort

• Setting realistic goals

• Encouraging problem-solving and persistence

• Building strong, supportive relationships

• Helping children develop skills in areas they value.

Adult Attachment Style - Secure

Comfortable with intimacy and autonomy. Linked to secure infant attachment.

Adult Attachment Styles - Anxious-preoccupied

Craves closeness but worries about rejection. Linked to ambivalent infant attachment.

Adult Attachment Style - Dissmissive-avoidant

Dismisses intimacy, values independence too much. Linked to avoidant infant attachment.

Adult attachment style— Fearful-avoidant

Fears initmacy and trusts others poorly. Linked to disorganized infant attachment.

Sexual Identity Development Stages

• Awareness = "Huh, I feel different."

• Exploration = "What does this mean for me?"

• Commitment = "This is who I am."

• Integration = "I’m living openly as my true self."

Coming Out

Good stuff = You feel freer, closer to real friends, and usually happier long-term.
Hard stuff = Some people might react badly at first, and it can feel scary.
Help it go better = Have supportive people around and get help from allies or therapists.

Emerging Adulthood

A weird phase where you're not a kid or full adult yet — figuring out love, jobs, and life. (18-25)

Is Emerging Adulthood Real?

It's real for lots of people (delayed marriage, prolonged education, and economic shifts)

• But mostly exists in rich countries where people take longer to settle down.

James Marcia’s Four Stages of Identity Development

• Diffusion = "I don't know and don't care." (no commitment, no exploration)

• Foreclosure = "I’m doing what others expect." (commitment w/o exploration)

• Moratorium = "I'm still trying stuff out." (exploration w/o commitment)

• Achievement = "I made my own choice after thinking about it." (exploration w commitment)

Job Satisfaction Across Adulthood

People usually like their jobs more the older they get because they get better at them and have more say.

Alienation

Feeling like your job is pointless and no one cares what you do.

Burnout

Being completely drained and sick of your job.

Preventing Alienation and Burnout

Increasing job autonomy, matching skills to tasks, offering support systems, promoting self-care

Invisible Labor

All the little jobs (like planning birthdays, cleaning) that no one notices

• women usually end up doing them

Divorce Rates in the U.S.

Fewer people are getting divorced now because they marry smarter and later.

Singlehood

More people are choosing to stay single — and society is chill with it.

Cohabitation

More couples live together before marriage. If they rush into it without thinking, it can lead to breakups later.

Parenthood and Life Satisfaction

Kids make life crazy stressful at first. More people are skipping parenthood to save money and keep freedom.

Sandwich Generation

Adults who are caring for both their children and aging parents simultaneously.

Boomerang Generation

Grown-up kids moving back home because life’s expensive.

Perception of Growing Older

View it as negatively (in youth) to more positively (in older adulthood)

• You just care more about feeling happy (emotional satisfaction)

Midlife Crisis

Research shows that most people do not experience a midlife crisis

• Some experience periods of reflection or minor dissatisfaction

Allostatic Load

Stress over time beats up your body and makes you age faster.

Physical and Cognitive Changes in Middle Adulthood

Your body starts creaking, and your brain takes a little longer to react —> but you actually get smarter about life stuff.

Crystallized Intelligence

Life smarts — everything you’ve learned and experienced.

• Keeps getting better as you age.

Fluid Intelligence

Quick thinking — how fast and flexibly you can figure stuff out.

• Peaks when you're younger.

Programmed Theories of Aging

Theories suggesting aging is biologically programmed into our DNA and occurs according to a biological timetable.

Damage/Error Theories of Aging

Theories proposing that aging results from accumulated damage to cells

• Tissues over time, due to environmental factors, internal mistakes, and other wear and tear.

Cellular Senescence Theory

• Programmed theory

• Cells can only split so many times before they get tired and quit (hayflick)— partly because the tips of their DNA (telomeres) wear down.

Immunological Theory

Your immune system wears out as you get older, leaving you less protected.

Wear and Tear Theory

(Damage/error theory)

• Like an old machine, the body just gets worn out over time.

Oxidative Stress Theory

(Damage/error theory)

• Free radicals (unstable molecules) cause cumulative damage to cells and DNA, leading to aging and disease.

Cross-Linking Theory

Damage/ error theory

• Proteins and other molecules form abnormal bonds ("cross-links") over time, making tissues stiff and less functional.

Neurological Changes with Aging

Aging causes neural atrophy (loss of neurons and brain volume), slowed neurotransmission, and accumulation of abnormal proteins

Alzheimer’s Disease - Symptoms

Symptoms include memory loss, confusion, poor judgment, personality changes, difficulty completing familiar tasks, and language problems.

Pathology of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s is characterized by two abnormal structures in the brain:

• Amyloid plaques (outside neurons)

• Neurofibrillary tangles (inside neurons)
  

  Bad proteins build up and choke brain cells to death.

Inherited vs sporadic Alzheimer’s

• Inherited: Runs in families, hits younger.

• Sporadic: Happens randomly and usually later.

Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s Disease

Getting older, having certain genes, heart problems, or a bad head injury all raise your chances.

Competence-Environmental Press Model

Aging adults function best when there is a good fit between their abilities (competence) and the demands of their environment (environmental press).

• People do better when what they can do matches what life asks them to do

Disengagement Theory

As people age, it is natural and acceptable for them to withdraw from social roles and activities.

• Stops gardening altogether because it reflects a natural withdrawal.

Activity Theory

Older adults are happiest when they stay active and connected.

• Activity theory would encourage the older person to keep gardening but modify it — maybe join a community garden where help is available.

Continuity Theory

Older adults try to maintain a consistent lifestyle by adapting strategies that have worked for them in the past.

People like to stick to what’s familiar, even when they get old.

• Finding ways for the elderly person to continue gardening.

Selective Optimization and Compensation Theory

Successful aging involves selecting important activities, optimizing performance in them, and compensating for declines by adapting strategies or using aids.

• The person might choose just a few favorite plants to care for (selection)

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

When you know you have less time left, you focus on close friends and doing things that make you feel good.

Social Isolation in Older Adulthood

Older people can end up lonely because they stop working, friends pass away, or they can't get around easily.

Generativity

It’s about wanting to leave something good behind for younger people.

Relation to Crystallized Intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence helps older adults mentor, guide, and pass down wisdom — key parts of being generative.

Palliative Care

Focuses on relieving pain, symptoms, and stress at any stage of illness — not just at the end of life

Hospice Care

Special care for when you're dying, to make you as comfortable as possible.

Barriers to Adjustment to the "Dying Role"

It's hard to accept dying — people feel scared, sad, and worried about what they’re leaving behind.

Death Conceptualization Across the Lifespan

• Children (under 5): See death as reversible and not permanent.

• Middle Childhood (6–9): Start to understand death is final but might not fully grasp it happens to everyone.

• Adolescents: Understand death cognitively but may feel "immune" to it emotionally.

• Adults: View death as inevitable, especially after midlife.

Death Anxiety

Young people freak out about dying more than older people, who often make peace with it.

Cultural Variations in Beliefs About Death and Mourning Practices

• Western cultures (like U.S.) often see death as something to fight off; mourning tends to be more private.

• Eastern cultures (like China) may view death as part of a cycle and stress ancestor reverence.

• Mexico (Día de los Muertos): Celebrates and honors the dead with festivals and altars.

Bonanno's Five Profiles of Grief

• Resilient: Minor grief, quick return to functioning.

• Common Grief: Intense sadness, but normal recovery.

• Chronic Grief: Long-term intense suffering.

• Chronic Depression: Pre-existing depression worsens with loss.

• Depressed-Improved: Depression lifts after the loss, possibly due to relief.

Dual Process Model of Grief

Grief is like a seesaw — some days you're sad about the loss, some days you’re trying to get on with life.