C3.1 Integration of body systems

What is the purpose of system integration in organisms?

To ensure effective communication and coordination between systems for performing life functions.

What is the function of tissues in multicellular organisms?

Tissues are groups of cells specialized to perform specific functions and work together to support the organism.

How are cells within tissues adapted to their function?

Cells within tissues are specialized in structure and function, with adaptations that allow them to perform their roles effectively.

Why do large organisms have more cells in each tissue rather than larger cells?

Because of surface area-to-volume issues, smaller cells allow for more efficient exchange of materials.

What are the two types of cells in the alveoli epithelium of the lungs?

AT1 cells (for gas diffusion) and AT2 cells (for surfactant secretion).

How do animal cells adhere to each other in tissues?

Through transmembrane proteins that form strong links between neighboring cells.

How do plant cells adhere to each other in tissues?

Through a middle lamella that is rich in pectin, which glues the cells together.

What is the function of auxin pumps in plant tissues?

To transfer auxin for coordinated growth in plants.

How do heart muscle cells communicate?

By transmitting electrical impulses that trigger contraction.

What is an organ?

A group of tissues in an animal or plant that work together to perform a specific function.

How do tissues within an organ depend on each other?

They rely on each other for processes such as gas exchange or nutrient supply.

What is an example of interdependence between tissues in a leaf?

The spongy mesophyll depends on the palisade mesophyll for carbon dioxide, while the palisade mesophyll depends on the spongy mesophyll for oxygen removal.

What are organ systems?

Groups of organs that interact to perform an overall function of life in an organism.

How are organs within a system often linked?

Physically, like in the digestive and nervous systems, or dispersed, like in the endocrine system.

How does an organism integrate its organ systems?

Through coordination and communication between different organ systems to carry out the functions of life.

. How do organs contribute to emergent properties of an organism?

Organs work together in a coordinated way to produce complex behaviors or abilities that cannot be predicted by studying individual components.

What are examples of organ systems in humans?

Digestive, nervous, reproductive, skeletal, muscular, circulatory, and others.

. How do organs in an organism communicate and transport materials?

Through the circulatory system, hormones, and nerve impulses.

What is the role of the circulatory system?

To transport materials like oxygen, glucose, and waste products between organs.

How is energy transported through the body?

Through the bloodstream, which carries oxygen and nutrients to cells for respiration and removes waste.

What is the primary role of cell respiration?

To provide energy to cells by breaking down glucose with oxygen (aerobic respiration).

How does the digestive system coordinate with others in material transfer?

Materials are transferred from organ to organ to perform specific functions in sequence, such as nutrient absorption and waste removal.

What is the brain’s role as an integration organ?

To receive, process, and store information, and send instructions to various body parts for coordination of life processes.

What is memory in the brain?

The capacity to store information for short or long-term use.

What are the roles of the central nervous system (CNS)?

To process information, make decisions, and send signals to organs and muscles to carry out responses.

What is the role of the spinal cord in the nervous system?

To coordinate unconscious processes, especially reflexes, and send signals to the brain and body.

How is reflex action coordinated?

Reflex actions involve sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, and effectors, with minimal processing in the spinal cord or brain.

What are the differences between unconscious and conscious processes?

Unconscious processes, like reflexes, are automatic and fast, while conscious processes involve more complex decision-making.

What is the function of sensory receptors?

To detect stimuli like temperature, light, or pressure and send signals to the brain or spinal cord.

What are the roles of sensory neurons?

To transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

What is the role of interneurons?

To process signals from sensory neurons and make decisions about appropriate responses.

What do motor neurons do?

They transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands to trigger responses.

. What are effectors in the nervous system?

They are muscles or glands that carry out a response to a stimulus when signaled by motor neurons.

How do muscles respond to stimuli?

By contracting, such as when muscles in the leg contract to lift a foot away from a sharp object.

How do glands respond to stimuli?

By secreting substances, such as when glands in the head secrete saliva in response to the smell of food.

What is a reflex arc?

A sequence of neurons and cells that participate in coordinating a reflex response.

What is the role of the cerebellum in movement control?

It fine-tunes muscle contractions and helps with balance and motor memory, such as when riding a bike.

What is melatonin’s role in circadian rhythms?

It regulates the sleep-wake cycle, promoting sleep at night and encouraging waking during the day.

What is the hypothalamus’ role in regulating body systems?

It controls homeostasis by integrating inputs and controlling functions like temperature, glucose levels, and hormone secretion.

. What does the pineal gland do in relation to circadian rhythms?

It secretes melatonin, which helps regulate sleep and wake cycles.

How does the SCN in the hypothalamus influence circadian rhythms?

It controls the secretion of melatonin in response to light cues, adjusting the body’s internal clock.

What is epinephrine’s role in preparing the body for physical activity?

It increases the supply of oxygen and glucose to muscles and prepares the body for a fight or flight response.

What are the effects of epinephrine on the body?

It increases heart rate, dilates airways, and increases blood flow to muscles while reducing blood flow to non-essential organs.

How does epinephrine affect muscle cells?

It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose for energy production.

How does epinephrine affect liver cells?

It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream.

What effect does epinephrine have on bronchioles?

It causes bronchioles to dilate, improving airflow and ventilation.

How does epinephrine affect blood vessels?

It causes vasodilation in muscles and vasoconstriction in non-essential organs.

How is epinephrine secretion controlled?

It is controlled by the brain, increasing when physical activity is needed due to a threat or opportunity.

What is the "fight or flight" response?

It is the body's preparation for vigorous physical activity in response to stress or danger, triggered by epinephrine secretion.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the nervous system?

It integrates the nervous and endocrine systems to maintain homeostasis and regulate bodily functions.

How does the hypothalamus communicate with the endocrine system?

Through the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that regulate body functions.

What are the functions of the pineal gland?

It produces melatonin, regulating circadian rhythms and sleep patterns.

How do reflexes help protect the body?

They allow rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli, minimizing the risk of harm to the body.

What is the role of the spinal cord in reflex actions?

It coordinates reflex actions, often without the need for input from the brain.

How does the brain handle sensory input?

It receives sensory information from sense organs and processes it to create appropriate responses.

How does the brain process sensory information?

It processes sensory signals in specialized areas of the cerebral hemispheres, like the visual cortex.

What is the function of the motor cortex?

It sends signals to motor neurons to control muscle movements.

How do motor neurons contribute to muscle control?

They carry nerve impulses from the motor cortex to specific muscles, causing contraction.

How do sensory and motor neurons work together in a reflex?

Sensory neurons detect stimuli, interneurons process the signals, and motor neurons execute the response.

What are the characteristics of motor neurons?

They have long axons that transmit nerve impulses to muscles or glands.

How do the spinal cord and brain work together in reflexes?

While the spinal cord handles quick reflexes, the brain processes more complex responses.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in temperature regulation?

It helps maintain body temperature by regulating heat production and loss.

What are the sensory inputs for temperature regulation?

Temperature sensors in the hypothalamus and skin detect temperature changes.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in hunger and thirst regulation?

It regulates hunger and thirst by responding to signals about nutrient and water levels.

How does the hypothalamus respond to dehydration?

It triggers the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) to reduce urine output and conserve water.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in sleep-wake cycles?

It regulates the timing of sleep and wakefulness through melatonin secretion.

How do sensory receptors transmit information to the brain?

Through sensory neurons that send nerve impulses to the central nervous system.

How does the brain process information from sensory receptors?

It processes sensory inputs in specialized areas of the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain.

What is the function of the primary motor cortex?

It sends signals to motor neurons, which control voluntary muscle movements.

How do reflexes help minimize bodily harm?

By providing rapid, involuntary responses that protect the body from injury.

What is the role of motor neurons in reflex actions?

They transmit signals from the spinal cord to effectors like muscles or glands, carrying out the reflex response.

How do interneurons contribute to reflexes?

They process information from sensory neurons and send signals to motor neurons to execute the response.

. What is the role of proprioceptors in the body?

They monitor the position of muscles and joints to help maintain posture and balance.

How do the optic nerve and auditory nerve contribute to sensory input?

They transmit visual and auditory information to the brain from the eyes and ears, respectively.

What is the role of the cerebellum in movement?

It coordinates the timing and precision of muscle contractions to maintain balance and control fine motor movements.

What role does the hypothalamus play in the endocrine system?

It links the nervous system and endocrine system, helping to regulate hormone release and maintain homeostasis.

How does the autonomic nervous system regulate bodily functions?

Through involuntary control of muscles and glands, managing functions like heart rate and digestion.

How does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for action?

By increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and increasing blood flow to muscles for a "fight or flight" response.

What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

It helps the body rest and recover by lowering heart rate and stimulating digestion.

What role do the kidneys play in homeostasis?

They filter blood to remove waste, regulate water balance, and maintain electrolyte levels.

What is the function of the pancreas in glucose regulation?

It releases insulin to lower blood sugar and glucagon to raise it, maintaining balanced glucose levels.

How do the lungs help maintain pH balance?

By regulating the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, which affects pH.

What is the role of the liver in metabolism?

It processes nutrients and toxins, stores glucose as glycogen, and produces bile for digestion.

How does the body regulate blood pressure?

Through mechanisms in the brain, kidneys, and blood vessels that adjust fluid balance and vessel constriction.

What is the role of the skeletal system?

It provides structural support, protects organs, and works with muscles to facilitate movement.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland and controls processes like osmoregulation and puberty by secreting hormones.

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

The pituitary gland secretes hormones into blood capillaries under the direction of the hypothalamus and regulates various bodily functions.

What does ADH do in osmoregulation?

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) helps regulate water balance by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys.

How does the hypothalamus control puberty?

The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, stimulating the pituitary gland to release LH and FSH, which trigger puberty-related hormonal changes.

What is the sinoatrial node (SAN)?

The sinoatrial node is a group of cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium that acts as the pacemaker for the heart.

How does the cardiovascular center control heart rate?

The cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata receives inputs from nerves and regulates heart rate through the sympathetic and vagus nerves.

What effect does the sympathetic nerve have on the heart?

The sympathetic nerve signals the sinoatrial node to increase heart rate, preparing the body for stress or physical activity.

What does the vagus nerve do to heart rate?

The vagus nerve signals the sinoatrial node to decrease heart rate, helping to calm the body.

How does the cardiovascular center respond to blood pressure changes?

The cardiovascular center adjusts heart rate based on inputs from baroreceptors that monitor blood pressure, using negative feedback.

What role do chemoreceptors play in regulating heart rate?

Chemoreceptors monitor blood oxygen and pH levels, signaling the cardiovascular center to adjust heart rate to maintain balance.

How does the amygdala affect heart rate?

The amygdala sends distress signals to the hypothalamus, which triggers the release of epinephrine, increasing heart rate during stress.

What happens when blood oxygen levels are low?

Low oxygen levels (hypoxia) trigger chemoreceptors to increase heart rate, improving oxygen delivery to tissues.

How does the respiratory system regulate blood pH?

The respiratory system adjusts ventilation rate to remove carbon dioxide, which affects blood pH levels.

What is the role of chemoreceptors in ventilation?

Chemoreceptors detect changes in blood CO2 and pH, signaling the respiratory centers to adjust ventilation rate for pH balance.

What happens when carbon dioxide concentration increases?

Increased CO2 decreases blood pH, triggering an increase in ventilation rate to expel CO2 and restore pH balance.