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Attachment Milestones (Ainsworth)
Insecure Avoidant, insecure Ambivalent (Clingy), Secure
Embryonic Stage
The second period, neurulation occurs; the period of time from implantation to the eighth week; cells of the embryo begin to differentiate into specialized cells and brain regions, folding into three layers. The ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
Fetal Stage
The period of time from the ninth week to birth; involves major changes in fetus size, brain development, sensory capabilities, and learning
Infant Concepts
Schemes, adaptation, assimilation, equilibration, disequilibrium, accommodation, organization
Language Milestones
Usually starting with noises, then crying, then cooing, then babbling word sound alikes, then words
Motor Milestones
Reflexes and Spontaneous Movements > Primary Circular Reactions > Secondary Circular Reactions > Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions > Tertiary Circular Reactions
Piaget Stages
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth To 2): Learning about the world
Preoperational (2 to 7): Grasping of symbolic meaning and use of words and pictures. Egocentrism, growth in language and thinking
Concrete Operational: (7 to 11): Logical thinking, understanding of conservation. Inductive Logic.
Formal Operational: (12 and up): Abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking. Moral, philosophical, general existential thinking. Deductive logic.
(?)
Prematurity
An early birth, before the average 37 weeks of pregnancy. Issues usually occur along the lines of health challenges and size issues.
Social Milestones
Recognizing faces, showing signs of attachment styles, widening range of emotions, developing friendships, and eventually building social skills and being able to work with people (?)
Concrete operations
7 to 11 years. Thinking is more logical, flexible, and organized.
Conservation
Classification
Spatial Reasoning
Episodic Memory
A form of long term memory that stores personal experiences. “Mental time travel” (?)
Semantic Memory
The base of general knowledge. A form of long term memory involving the ability to recall words, concepts, or numbers.
Working Memory
Has a capacity, and benefits from increased efficiency of processing input. Has cognitive self regulation as a part of it. Reading comprehension makes demands of it.
Temporary storing of information and recalling it for things like comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving.
Impact of General Knowledge
Important for working memory. This should be growing dramatically, too. Semantic memory is the base of this.
Children should begin to organize information in their area of expertise with little to no effort. Extensive knowledge and the use of memory strategies support each other. The more they know, the easier it is to learn.
Impact of Teachers
How these people respond to failures and successes matter for a child’s belief about their own abilities. Can foster self regulation by pointing out important features of a task.
Reading Instruction
Instrumental in helping prevent dyslexia. Though, even children with dyslexia with the right instruction obtain good reading proficiency. (?)
Recursive Thinking
The ability to view a situation from multiple perspectives
Aggression
Strongly correlated with harsh punishment. Internalization promotes it.
Proactive: Fulfillment of a need
Reactive
These two stages have their own forms
Physical, verbal, and relational
Conscience development
Can be promoted with inductive discipline, which is to make the child aware of feelings, giving information about how to behave, and encouraging empathy and use of moral standards. Begins to take shape at this stage.
Consequences of social competence
Children can be able to notice social cues, interpret behavior and situations, formulate goals for the self in situations, and generate strategies to achieve goals.
Direct parental influence
Parents can arrange informal peer play activities, can show children how to initiate peer contacts, and can provide guidance on how to act toward others.
Effects of reading to children
Enhanced language and literacy skills, improved cognitive functions, and stronger emotional connections (?)
Indirect parental influence
Secure attachment and a sensitive, emotionally expressive parent child conversations and play can do this for peer relationships
Kohlberg and gender
Proposed three stages…
Gender identity (2 - 3): I am
Gender stability (3 - 4): I will be
Gender constancy (5 - 7)
Language and emotional regulation
Learning emotion words usually helps children get an idea of how to properly express themselves.
Learning Prejudice
Usually learned through observation and reinforcement in their environment (?)
Moral development
Social experiences and cognitive factors strongly influence this
Parental role in emotional regulation
Parents can help teach their child ways to perform this. Usually performed through the approaches of “recognize & label”, offering sympathy, and finding positive ways to express themselves.
Punishment
Very strong forms of this are vastly ineffective, and even can cause negative consequences. Though, the effectiveness appears cultural.
Social competence
Making friends predicts kindergartners’ cooperative classroom participation, task persistence, and academic skills. Preschoolers skilled in this category exceeded the less as such in academics in early years.
Temperament and emotional regulation
Certain traits of [ANSWER] like sociability and persistence were positively connected to [ANSWER] (?)
Academic Self Efficacy
Concept of industry vs inferiority. Children develop a sense of mastery when they feel a sense of accomplishment as they persist towards goals. Though, children may feel inferior and lack motivation when failure arises or when punished.
Display rules
Strategies to hide authentic feelings or change emotional expressions to fit a situation.
Intensification
Minimization
Neutralization
Substitution
Gender stereotypes
Common stereotypes around math abilities. Parents may decide to reinforce or step away from these stereotypes. Peers often reinforce gender biases. During the earliest years the children have very rigid ideas about gender, expands as they get older..
Internalizing and Externalizing Problems
Children with limited coping strategies may have these issues. Also has problems with [ANSWER]ing their behaviors through aggression towards their environment.
Minority socialization
Young children may only know a label that applies to their group. School age learn more about other groups. By the time of middle childhood, children in minority groups may face problems from strangers. Parents usually begin a process of socializing children for safety. Children are aware of negative biases towards different groups.
Parental Modeling
How parents respond to children’s emotions and how parents perform parental tasks influence a child’s emotional competence. Harsh punishment can have severe consequences, and positive parenting can support positive behavior.
Peer Relationships
Can positively influence children’s emotional development. Close friends can support one another and distract their friends from negativity. Conflict can provide a platform for learning how to resolve disagreements.
Rejected Children
These children received few likes and many dislikes on sociometric nominations. Classified as either aggressive or withdrawn
Sibling Relationships
The quality of these relationships relates to children’s emotional and social development. Under the basis of modeling, coaching, supporting, defending, bullying, intimidating, and ridiculiung.
Sociometric status
A study performed where children rated their peers under the basis of “like” and “dislike”. Children were classified based on these results.
Sociometry
A quantitative method for measuring social relationships
Brain Maturation
Most prominent changes in the prefrontal cortex, corpus callosum, and hippocampus. Increase in processing speed, problem solving, and memory/cognitive skills (?)
Enuresis
Bedwetting, about 15% of children in industrial nations, about twice as many boys as girls.
Social effects, isolation from closely linked people, considered biological.
Fine motor skills
Writing, drawing, music instruction
Gender differences in motor skills
Males tend to show higher proficiency in large muscle movements, whilst females tend to excel in smaller, fine movements
Obesity
May lead to social isolation which may lead to emotional, social, and school difficulties. Unhappiness and spiraling may contribute to each other. Women suffering from this are likely to reach puberty early.
Strongly influenced by stress
About 31% of children are overweight, 17% this.
Play and physical activity
These activities show patterns that persist in adolescence. Adult health may be shaped, and social policy can provide opportunity for learning healthy patterns of eating and remaining active for all children.
Child organized events can express cultural values. Generally speaking, it consists strongly to emotional and social development.
Timing of adrenarche & Puberty
These events occur around 6 - 8 in girls, and 8 - 10 in boys. The [ANSWER] is part of a network of factors affecting health and adjustment. It is influenced by early stressful family environments.
Social Identity Removed From Gender
Ethnicity and Religious Sections
Decentration
Ability to focus on several aspects of a problem
Reversibility
Thinking through a series of steps and the returning to the starting point
Seriation
Ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, like length or weight
Transitive Inference
Ability to order mentally
Schemes
Organized ways of making sense of experience
Adaptation
Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
Equilibrium
Alternating periods of mostly assimilation, followed by a need for accommodation
Accommodation
Creating new schemas or adjusting old ones to respond more effectively to new challenges
Attachment Milestones (Bowlby)
Preattachment - Infants produce innate signals and are comforted by interaction
Attachment in the Making - Infants respond preferentially to familiar people
Clear Cut Attachment - Infants actively seek out contact with their regular caregiv
Reciprocal Relationships - Taking an active role in partnerships with caregivers
Productive Language
Usually starting with noises, then crying, then cooing, then babbling word sound alikes, then words
Sentence Comprehension and Production
Toddlers usually speak in single words, but at about 2 years babies begin speaking in slightly longer sentences
Phonemic Tuning
Toddlers begin to understand the importance of certain sounds and recognize the patterns of speech
Statistical Learning
The ability of infants to perceive and learn regularities in language, such as the speech sounds that make up a word
Word Comprehension
Similar to statistical learning and phonemic tuning, toddlers discover where words begin and end in fluent speech, this usually begins in the latter half of the second year. Babies can understand referents as early as 5 months
Word production
For english speaking children and for children who speak certain languages, first words tend to be simple nouns referring to objects and social words.
Social Cues for language
Infants look at others’ gestures to determine what the person is talking about, including following someone’s pointing to learn new words
Mutual Exclusivity
The assumption that each object has only one label.
Language Exposure
Children who have this happen to them tend to have a stronger understanding of language at an earlier age. Allows for phonemic tuning and statistical learning (?)
Bilingualism
Those who learn 2 languages display similar growth rates in vocabulary and total vocabulary size to SLL. They are not surprised by two names for two identical objects, and have a greater acceptance of mispronounced words
Maternal Use of mental state verbs, emotion words
Frequent use of these words promote social cognition, theory of mind, and emotional regulation
Vocabulary explosions
Prominent expansion in the 15 - 20th months
Developmental cascades of language
Language development influences cognitive development, processing speed, executive control, later school achievements, and effects of poverty
Machine Learning Theory
Vong Et Al trained a general purpose machine learning program on 61 hours of video from a baby’s head mounted camera and transcribed recordings of adult speech. The system acquired many word referent mappings.
Chomsky’s Grammar Theory
He believed that there were an innate set of abstract grammatical rules shared by all human languages. This was explain by the language acquisition device, which was an innate module in the mind that explained the rapid acquisition of language
Nativist Approach of language acquisition
They believed in biases and sign language. Also cited critical periods in language settings.
Connectionist Theory
The belief that infants build language from the bottom up based on input. Based on experience with language, the brain constructs complex representations - conceptual, lexical, phonological that facilitate complex rapid thinking
Dynamic/Developmental Systems Theory
Children’s experiences contribute to language development to organize the brain’s network, making the child an active participant in language development
Ainsworth’s Attachment Stages
Secure
Insecure Ambivalent (Overly clingy)
Insecure Avoidant
Internal Working Model
A model that guides interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages. A mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
Chess & Thomas Theory
Babies are easy, slow to warm up, or difficult
Rothbart’s Theory
Babies have different dimensions of temperament, them being
Activity level
Attention Span/persistence
Fearful Distress
Irritable Distress
Positive Affect
Effortful Control: Called orienting/regulation in infancy
Kagan’s Study
Studied babies at 3 - 4 months in a lab situation. Inhibited children had higher heart rates, lower vagal tone, and higher cortisol levels, among others
Key names for socio-emotional development in infancy & toddlerhood
Rene Spitz, Harlow, Lorenz (Imprinting), Bowlby, Ainsworth
Parental sensitivity, affection, responsiveness, and self regulation
These promote early and more effective development of self regulation. Parents should keep the child’s environment as stimulated as necessary - but not too stimulated.
Sequence of recognition of emotional expressions, production of emotional expressions
Babies are initially able to discriminate between positive and negative expressions. Being able to recognize these things allow infants to use social referencing.
Cultural differences in attachment and expressiveness
Whilst the results of the strange situation is relatively the same among cultures, secure attachment is higher in many African cultures and avoidant attachment is higher in germany. Clear cut attachment is higher is Japan
Secure Base
Something that provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible to explore the environment
Developmental Cascades from Attachment
A possible affect is higher adolescent level of personality functioning
Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment
Preattachment - Infants produce innate signals and are comforted by interaction
Attachment in the Making - Infants respond preferentially to familiar people
Clear Cut Attachment - Infants actively seek out contact with their regular caregiv
Reciprocal Relationships - Taking an active role in partnerships with caregivers
Spitz’s findings
They compared institutionalized children with children of imprisoned mothers. Those who were institutionalized and deprived of maternal care had reduced exploration, locomotion, and motor action. The babies reacted with terror, anger, and fear to any person, along with other negatives.
Bowlby’s findings
Tested the idea that affectional ties were secondary and babies only needed basic needs, which turned out wrong. Believed that attachment behavioral system is active throughout life and accounts for central aspects of emotional reactions. Early attachment figures are replaced by friends or partners.
Growth Rates and physical changes
The brain increases to 90% of its adult weight, and toddlers grow taller and thinner. The child’s shape becomes more streamlined, and individual differences in size become more apparent
What type of sickness is a prominent problem for children?
Lead poisoning
Brain development
Aside from growing, there is synaptic pruning and apoptosis of some neurons, connectivity increasing in the prefrontal cortex, myelination increases in sensory and motor areas, the corpus callosum is created enabling coordination, among other changes, maturation of motor skills and gross and fine skills
Eating patterns and problems
Inadequate nutrition can impede normal physical growth. Many children approaching age 2 become unpredictable and picky eaters, and the social environment influences food choices. A poor diet depresses the immune system, which makes children far more susceptible to disease.
Illness and mortality, global patterns
Middle ear infections are seemingly common among toddlers, and unintentional injuries are the leading cause of of death in industrialized nations. There are family, community, and societal factors too.
Vaccination
About 28% of US infants and toddlers are not fully immunized, growing to 32% of poverty stricken children.
Child Maltreatment
There are four major types of abuse, emotional, physical, sexual abuse, and neglect
Piaget Pre-operational period
Two crucial parts of this period are egocentrism and centration, there are limitations in symbolic representation and in ability to make mental transformations. Dual representation and conservation are also parts of this.