Infant/Child Development EXPANDED Final Review

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217 Terms

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Attachment Milestones (Ainsworth)

Insecure Avoidant, insecure Ambivalent (Clingy), Secure

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Embryonic Stage

The second period, neurulation occurs; the period of time from implantation to the eighth week; cells of the embryo begin to differentiate into specialized cells and brain regions, folding into three layers. The ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

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Fetal Stage

The period of time from the ninth week to birth; involves major changes in fetus size, brain development, sensory capabilities, and learning

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Infant Concepts

Schemes, adaptation, assimilation, equilibration, disequilibrium, accommodation, organization

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Language Milestones

Usually starting with noises, then crying, then cooing, then babbling word sound alikes, then words

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Motor Milestones

Reflexes and Spontaneous Movements > Primary Circular Reactions > Secondary Circular Reactions > Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions > Tertiary Circular Reactions

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Piaget Stages

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth To 2): Learning about the world

  • Preoperational (2 to 7): Grasping of symbolic meaning and use of words and pictures. Egocentrism, growth in language and thinking

  • Concrete Operational: (7 to 11): Logical thinking, understanding of conservation. Inductive Logic.

  • Formal Operational: (12 and up): Abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking. Moral, philosophical, general existential thinking. Deductive logic.

(?)

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Prematurity

An early birth, before the average 37 weeks of pregnancy. Issues usually occur along the lines of health challenges and size issues.

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Social Milestones

Recognizing faces, showing signs of attachment styles, widening range of emotions, developing friendships, and eventually building social skills and being able to work with people (?)

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Concrete operations

7 to 11 years. Thinking is more logical, flexible, and organized.

  • Conservation

  • Classification

  • Spatial Reasoning

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Episodic Memory

A form of long term memory that stores personal experiences. “Mental time travel” (?)

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Semantic Memory

The base of general knowledge. A form of long term memory involving the ability to recall words, concepts, or numbers.

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Working Memory

Has a capacity, and benefits from increased efficiency of processing input. Has cognitive self regulation as a part of it. Reading comprehension makes demands of it.

Temporary storing of information and recalling it for things like comprehension, reasoning, and problem solving.

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Impact of General Knowledge

Important for working memory. This should be growing dramatically, too. Semantic memory is the base of this.

Children should begin to organize information in their area of expertise with little to no effort. Extensive knowledge and the use of memory strategies support each other. The more they know, the easier it is to learn.

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Impact of Teachers

How these people respond to failures and successes matter for a child’s belief about their own abilities. Can foster self regulation by pointing out important features of a task.

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Reading Instruction

Instrumental in helping prevent dyslexia. Though, even children with dyslexia with the right instruction obtain good reading proficiency. (?)

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Recursive Thinking

The ability to view a situation from multiple perspectives

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Aggression

Strongly correlated with harsh punishment. Internalization promotes it.

  • Proactive: Fulfillment of a need

  • Reactive

These two stages have their own forms

  • Physical, verbal, and relational

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Conscience development

Can be promoted with inductive discipline, which is to make the child aware of feelings, giving information about how to behave, and encouraging empathy and use of moral standards. Begins to take shape at this stage.

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Consequences of social competence

Children can be able to notice social cues, interpret behavior and situations, formulate goals for the self in situations, and generate strategies to achieve goals.

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Direct parental influence

Parents can arrange informal peer play activities, can show children how to initiate peer contacts, and can provide guidance on how to act toward others.

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Effects of reading to children

Enhanced language and literacy skills, improved cognitive functions, and stronger emotional connections (?)

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Indirect parental influence

Secure attachment and a sensitive, emotionally expressive parent child conversations and play can do this for peer relationships

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Kohlberg and gender

Proposed three stages…

  • Gender identity (2 - 3): I am

  • Gender stability (3 - 4): I will be

  • Gender constancy (5 - 7)

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Language and emotional regulation

Learning emotion words usually helps children get an idea of how to properly express themselves.

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Learning Prejudice

Usually learned through observation and reinforcement in their environment (?)

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Moral development

Social experiences and cognitive factors strongly influence this

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Parental role in emotional regulation

Parents can help teach their child ways to perform this. Usually performed through the approaches of “recognize & label”, offering sympathy, and finding positive ways to express themselves.

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Punishment

Very strong forms of this are vastly ineffective, and even can cause negative consequences. Though, the effectiveness appears cultural.

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Social competence

Making friends predicts kindergartners’ cooperative classroom participation, task persistence, and academic skills. Preschoolers skilled in this category exceeded the less as such in academics in early years.

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Temperament and emotional regulation

Certain traits of [ANSWER] like sociability and persistence were positively connected to [ANSWER] (?)

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Academic Self Efficacy

Concept of industry vs inferiority. Children develop a sense of mastery when they feel a sense of accomplishment as they persist towards goals. Though, children may feel inferior and lack motivation when failure arises or when punished.

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Display rules

Strategies to hide authentic feelings or change emotional expressions to fit a situation.

  • Intensification

  • Minimization

  • Neutralization

  • Substitution

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Gender stereotypes

Common stereotypes around math abilities. Parents may decide to reinforce or step away from these stereotypes. Peers often reinforce gender biases. During the earliest years the children have very rigid ideas about gender, expands as they get older..

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Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Children with limited coping strategies may have these issues. Also has problems with [ANSWER]ing their behaviors through aggression towards their environment.

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Minority socialization

Young children may only know a label that applies to their group. School age learn more about other groups. By the time of middle childhood, children in minority groups may face problems from strangers. Parents usually begin a process of socializing children for safety. Children are aware of negative biases towards different groups.

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Parental Modeling

How parents respond to children’s emotions and how parents perform parental tasks influence a child’s emotional competence. Harsh punishment can have severe consequences, and positive parenting can support positive behavior.

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Peer Relationships

Can positively influence children’s emotional development. Close friends can support one another and distract their friends from negativity. Conflict can provide a platform for learning how to resolve disagreements.

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Rejected Children

These children received few likes and many dislikes on sociometric nominations. Classified as either aggressive or withdrawn

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Sibling Relationships

The quality of these relationships relates to children’s emotional and social development. Under the basis of modeling, coaching, supporting, defending, bullying, intimidating, and ridiculiung.

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Sociometric status

A study performed where children rated their peers under the basis of “like” and “dislike”. Children were classified based on these results.

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Sociometry

A quantitative method for measuring social relationships

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Brain Maturation

Most prominent changes in the prefrontal cortex, corpus callosum, and hippocampus. Increase in processing speed, problem solving, and memory/cognitive skills (?)

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Enuresis

Bedwetting, about 15% of children in industrial nations, about twice as many boys as girls.

Social effects, isolation from closely linked people, considered biological.

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Fine motor skills

Writing, drawing, music instruction

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Gender differences in motor skills

Males tend to show higher proficiency in large muscle movements, whilst females tend to excel in smaller, fine movements

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Obesity

May lead to social isolation which may lead to emotional, social, and school difficulties. Unhappiness and spiraling may contribute to each other. Women suffering from this are likely to reach puberty early.

  • Strongly influenced by stress

About 31% of children are overweight, 17% this.

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Play and physical activity

These activities show patterns that persist in adolescence. Adult health may be shaped, and social policy can provide opportunity for learning healthy patterns of eating and remaining active for all children.

Child organized events can express cultural values. Generally speaking, it consists strongly to emotional and social development.

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Timing of adrenarche & Puberty

These events occur around 6 - 8 in girls, and 8 - 10 in boys. The [ANSWER] is part of a network of factors affecting health and adjustment. It is influenced by early stressful family environments.

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Social Identity Removed From Gender

Ethnicity and Religious Sections

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Decentration

Ability to focus on several aspects of a problem

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Reversibility

Thinking through a series of steps and the returning to the starting point

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Seriation

Ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, like length or weight

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Transitive Inference

Ability to order mentally

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Schemes

Organized ways of making sense of experience

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Adaptation

Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment

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Equilibrium

Alternating periods of mostly assimilation, followed by a need for accommodation

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Accommodation

Creating new schemas or adjusting old ones to respond more effectively to new challenges

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Attachment Milestones (Bowlby)

Preattachment - Infants produce innate signals and are comforted by interaction

Attachment in the Making - Infants respond preferentially to familiar people

Clear Cut Attachment - Infants actively seek out contact with their regular caregiv

Reciprocal Relationships - Taking an active role in partnerships with caregivers

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Productive Language

Usually starting with noises, then crying, then cooing, then babbling word sound alikes, then words

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Sentence Comprehension and Production

Toddlers usually speak in single words, but at about 2 years babies begin speaking in slightly longer sentences

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Phonemic Tuning

Toddlers begin to understand the importance of certain sounds and recognize the patterns of speech

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Statistical Learning

The ability of infants to perceive and learn regularities in language, such as the speech sounds that make up a word

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Word Comprehension

Similar to statistical learning and phonemic tuning, toddlers discover where words begin and end in fluent speech, this usually begins in the latter half of the second year. Babies can understand referents as early as 5 months

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Word production

For english speaking children and for children who speak certain languages, first words tend to be simple nouns referring to objects and social words.

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Social Cues for language

Infants look at others’ gestures to determine what the person is talking about, including following someone’s pointing to learn new words

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Mutual Exclusivity

The assumption that each object has only one label.

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Language Exposure

Children who have this happen to them tend to have a stronger understanding of language at an earlier age. Allows for phonemic tuning and statistical learning (?)

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Bilingualism

Those who learn 2 languages display similar growth rates in vocabulary and total vocabulary size to SLL. They are not surprised by two names for two identical objects, and have a greater acceptance of mispronounced words

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Maternal Use of mental state verbs, emotion words

Frequent use of these words promote social cognition, theory of mind, and emotional regulation

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Vocabulary explosions

Prominent expansion in the 15 - 20th months

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Developmental cascades of language

Language development influences cognitive development, processing speed, executive control, later school achievements, and effects of poverty

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Machine Learning Theory

Vong Et Al trained a general purpose machine learning program on 61 hours of video from a baby’s head mounted camera and transcribed recordings of adult speech. The system acquired many word referent mappings.

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Chomsky’s Grammar Theory

He believed that there were an innate set of abstract grammatical rules shared by all human languages. This was explain by the language acquisition device, which was an innate module in the mind that explained the rapid acquisition of language

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Nativist Approach of language acquisition

They believed in biases and sign language. Also cited critical periods in language settings.

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Connectionist Theory

The belief that infants build language from the bottom up based on input. Based on experience with language, the brain constructs complex representations - conceptual, lexical, phonological that facilitate complex rapid thinking

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Dynamic/Developmental Systems Theory

Children’s experiences contribute to language development to organize the brain’s network, making the child an active participant in language development

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Ainsworth’s Attachment Stages

Secure

Insecure Ambivalent (Overly clingy)

Insecure Avoidant

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Internal Working Model

A model that guides interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages. A mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general

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Chess & Thomas Theory

Babies are easy, slow to warm up, or difficult

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Rothbart’s Theory

Babies have different dimensions of temperament, them being

  • Activity level

  • Attention Span/persistence

  • Fearful Distress

  • Irritable Distress

  • Positive Affect

  • Effortful Control: Called orienting/regulation in infancy

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Kagan’s Study

Studied babies at 3 - 4 months in a lab situation. Inhibited children had higher heart rates, lower vagal tone, and higher cortisol levels, among others

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Key names for socio-emotional development in infancy & toddlerhood

Rene Spitz, Harlow, Lorenz (Imprinting), Bowlby, Ainsworth

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Parental sensitivity, affection, responsiveness, and self regulation

These promote early and more effective development of self regulation. Parents should keep the child’s environment as stimulated as necessary - but not too stimulated.

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Sequence of recognition of emotional expressions, production of emotional expressions

Babies are initially able to discriminate between positive and negative expressions. Being able to recognize these things allow infants to use social referencing.

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Cultural differences in attachment and expressiveness

Whilst the results of the strange situation is relatively the same among cultures, secure attachment is higher in many African cultures and avoidant attachment is higher in germany. Clear cut attachment is higher is Japan

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Secure Base

Something that provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible to explore the environment

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Developmental Cascades from Attachment

A possible affect is higher adolescent level of personality functioning

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Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment

Preattachment - Infants produce innate signals and are comforted by interaction

Attachment in the Making - Infants respond preferentially to familiar people

Clear Cut Attachment - Infants actively seek out contact with their regular caregiv

Reciprocal Relationships - Taking an active role in partnerships with caregivers

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Spitz’s findings

They compared institutionalized children with children of imprisoned mothers. Those who were institutionalized and deprived of maternal care had reduced exploration, locomotion, and motor action. The babies reacted with terror, anger, and fear to any person, along with other negatives.

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Bowlby’s findings

Tested the idea that affectional ties were secondary and babies only needed basic needs, which turned out wrong. Believed that attachment behavioral system is active throughout life and accounts for central aspects of emotional reactions. Early attachment figures are replaced by friends or partners.

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Growth Rates and physical changes

The brain increases to 90% of its adult weight, and toddlers grow taller and thinner. The child’s shape becomes more streamlined, and individual differences in size become more apparent

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What type of sickness is a prominent problem for children?

Lead poisoning

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Brain development

Aside from growing, there is synaptic pruning and apoptosis of some neurons, connectivity increasing in the prefrontal cortex, myelination increases in sensory and motor areas, the corpus callosum is created enabling coordination, among other changes, maturation of motor skills and gross and fine skills

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Eating patterns and problems

Inadequate nutrition can impede normal physical growth. Many children approaching age 2 become unpredictable and picky eaters, and the social environment influences food choices. A poor diet depresses the immune system, which makes children far more susceptible to disease.

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Illness and mortality, global patterns

Middle ear infections are seemingly common among toddlers, and unintentional injuries are the leading cause of of death in industrialized nations. There are family, community, and societal factors too.

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Vaccination

About 28% of US infants and toddlers are not fully immunized, growing to 32% of poverty stricken children.

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Child Maltreatment

There are four major types of abuse, emotional, physical, sexual abuse, and neglect

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Piaget Pre-operational period

Two crucial parts of this period are egocentrism and centration, there are limitations in symbolic representation and in ability to make mental transformations. Dual representation and conservation are also parts of this.