AP Psychology: Research Methods, Distributions, and Key Concepts

What method does psychology use to study behavior and mental processes?

The scientific method

What is empirical evidence?

Evidence gathered through systematic observation and experimentation

What are the three important parts of a scientific attitude?

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility

What does critical thinking involve?

Examining assumptions, evaluating sources, looking for hidden biases, evaluating evidence, considering alternative explanations, and assessing conclusions

What does the biological perspective focus on?

Brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics, neurotransmitters

What does the behavioral perspective focus on?

Observable behavior, rewards, punishments, conditioning

What does the cognitive perspective focus on?

Thinking, memory, perception, decision-making, problem-solving

What does the evolutionary perspective focus on?

Natural selection and behaviors that helped survival/reproduction

What does the humanistic perspective focus on?

Free will, personal growth, self-actualization

What does the psychodynamic perspective focus on?

Unconscious thoughts, childhood experiences, hidden conflicts

What does the sociocultural perspective focus on?

Culture, social groups, family expectations, social norms

What is hindsight bias?

Believing you could have predicted an outcome after learning it

What is confirmation bias?

Looking for information that supports what you already believe

What is overconfidence?

Being more confident in your knowledge or predictions than you should be

What is the purpose of the scientific method?

To establish cause and effect through manipulation and measurement

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction

What is an operational definition?

A precise explanation of how a variable is measured or manipulated

What is replication in research?

Repeating a study to see whether the findings can be reproduced

What is a case study?

An in-depth study of one individual or a small group

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interfering

What is a survey in research?

Collecting people's self-reported attitudes or behaviors

What is a correlational study?

Measures the relationship between two variables

What does correlation not equal?

Causation

What is a correlation coefficient?

Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

What is an independent variable?

The variable the researcher manipulates

What is a dependent variable?

The variable the researcher measures to see the effect

What is a confounding variable?

An unwanted factor that could influence the results

What is the purpose of a control group?

To provide a comparison by not receiving the treatment

What is a placebo?

An inactive treatment that resembles the real treatment

What is the placebo effect?

Changes caused by a person's expectations rather than the actual treatment

What is random sampling?

How researchers choose people for the study, giving every member an equal chance of being selected

What is random assignment?

How researchers put participants into groups after selecting them

What is the purpose of experimental and control groups?

To make groups more similar at the beginning and reduce pre-existing differences/confounding variables.

What is a population in research?

The entire group researchers want to understand.

What is a sample in research?

The smaller group that actually participates.

What is generalizability?

How well findings from the sample can be applied to the larger population.

What improves generalizability?

A sample that is representative, diverse, randomly selected, and large enough.

What is convenience sampling?

Selecting participants because they are easy to access.

What is sampling bias?

When some members of the population are less likely to be included than others, producing an unrepresentative sample.

What is experimenter bias?

When the researcher's expectations or behavior influence the results.

What is social desirability bias?

When participants answer questions in a way that makes them look more favorable to others.

What are wording effects?

Changes in survey question wording that can affect responses.

What is qualitative data?

Non-numerical, detailed information such as interviews and narratives.

What is quantitative data?

Numerical information that can be statistically analyzed.

What is a bar graph used for?

To represent categories with gaps between bars.

What is a histogram?

A graph showing frequency distribution with no gaps between bars.

What does a scatterplot show?

The relationship between two variables.

What is a normal distribution?

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where mean, median, and mode are equal.

What is the 68-95-99.7 rule?

Approximately 68% of data falls within ±1 SD, 95% within ±2 SD, and 99.7% within ±3 SD.

What is standard deviation?

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

What does a small standard deviation indicate?

Scores are close together.

What does a large standard deviation indicate?

Scores are spread out.

What is a percentile?

A measure that tells you how your score compares with other scores.

What is inferential statistics?

Statistics that use sample data to make conclusions about a larger population.

What is statistical significance?

A determination of whether a result is likely to have occurred by chance.

What is reliability in research?

The consistency and repeatability of results.

What is validity in research?

Whether something accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.

What are the ethical considerations in research?

Physical harm, psychological harm, discomfort, privacy, and research involving children or animals.

What is informed consent?

Participants are given enough information about the study to decide whether to participate.

What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

To review research involving human participants and protect their well-being.

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

He helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.

Who established the first psychological laboratory?

Wilhelm Wundt in 1879

What does an experiment test?

Cause and effect

What does correlation indicate?

Relationship, NOT causation

What is an independent variable (IV)?

Manipulated variable

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

Measured variable

What does random sampling do?

Gets participants

What does random assignment do?

Puts participants into groups

What is a double-blind study?

Participants AND researchers don't know treatment assignment

What is a survey?

Self-report method

What is a meta-analysis?

Combines multiple studies

What is a positive correlation?

Same direction relationship

What is a negative correlation?

Opposite directions relationship

What is the mean?

Average of a set of numbers

What is the median?

Middle value in a sorted list

What is the mode?

Most frequent value

What is the range?

Highest minus lowest value

What does reliability refer to?

Consistency of results

What does validity refer to?

Accuracy of measurement

What does the 68-95-99.7 rule describe?

Normal distribution percentages

What is IRB?

Institutional Review Board for human research

What is IACUC?

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

What is debriefing?

Information provided after the study

What is a potential problem with case studies?

Information may not apply to the wider population

What is an ethical principle in research?

Protect participants from harm and discomfort

What does a negative correlation imply?

One variable increases as the other decreases

What is the smallest standard deviation?

Scores closest together

What is the dependent variable in a study?

The test scores

What is the independent variable in a study?

Food given to participants

What are the experimental groups in a study?

Groups receiving treatment

What is the control group in a study?

Group receiving no treatment

What is the best conclusion for a study?

Eating cookies or mint candy tends to improve memory recall

What does scoring in the 90th percentile mean?

Higher than 90 percent of competitors