remembering + forgetting

retrieval failure

the inability to retrieve a certain piece of info

successful retrieval requires cues that acts as mental reminders

without the right cue it’s diffucult to oull the right info out of memory

interference (retroactive)

info that isn’t lost from storage, but can’t be successfully retrieved due to related or similar info getting mixed u or blocks retrieval

learning new info interferes with remembering old info (e.g. easy to remember the new timetable, but not the old one)

interference (proactive)

info that isn’t lost from storage, but can’t be successfully retrieved due to related or similar info getting mixed up or blocks retrieval

info previously learned interferes with new learning (e.g calling a new friend by an old friend’s name)

motivated forgetting

the inability to remember things because there is an advantage to not remember it

—> an akin to repressed memory from some traumatic event

e.g. self-protection defense (not wanting to think about it due to it being anxiety provoking, emotionally stressful, or unpleasant

decay theory

decay: the simple fading away of memory overtime

some memories can be thought to be long faded can be retrieved at the sight of certain faces, a sound, smell, etc. (recognition)

recall defenition

uses questions which info should be retrieved from memory without any prompts

types of recall

free, serial, cued

free recall

tasks require to renenber items on a list in any order

serial recall

tasks require Ps to recall a list of items in a specific order, usually the order they were presented in

cued recall

retrieving info from long term memory using aids

these aids can be external stimuli (words, sentences, incomplete sentences, letter within a word, etc)

as long as they have some kind of connection to the target info

recognition

questions which asks to identify info from a number of alternatives —> multichoice

people find recognition easier than recall

relearning

involves a person re-taking in info they previously have

if info is learned quicker the second time, it is assumed memory must have been stored/retained

Craik + Lockhart (1972)

levels of processing model

describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of depth of mental processing

depth of processing falls on shallow to deep continuum

craik and tulving 1975 aim

whether the level of processing affect how well we remeber information

craik and tulving 1975 method

participants: 60 male and female students from university of Toronto with convenient sampling

materials: list of 60 words, set of 3 questions and a list of 180 words that incorporate the original 60 words

IV: the type of encoding used to memorise a set of words: structural, phonemic, sematic

DV: the number of words recalled

Ps chose to be apart of the study, and was told it was about perception + randomly allocated to conditions for word memorisation

all ps were provided with a list and required to answer a question for each word:

structural encoding: “is the word in capital or lowercase letters?”
phonemic: “does the word rhyme with…?”

semantic: “does the word go in this sentence..?”

list of 180 words were given to each P, and they were required to indicate which words were part of the original 60

craik and tulving 1975 key findings

Ps in semantic coding recalled more wrods than Ps in phonemic or structural coding; highlights the importance of deeper processing for memory retention

words that were semantically ecncoded via elaborative rehearsal and deep processing led to higher recall accuracy

words that were structurally and phonemically encoded underwent shallow processing, resulting in less accurate recall

craik and tulving 1975 contributions

eperical evidence provided as result of the study enabling other researchers to run similar experiemtns

this allowed for reliability to be assessed and demonstrated high reliability

craik and tulving 1975 criticisms

Ps were told the study was assessing perceptions, and was not explained the true purpose of the study, and specific details on the debriefing process for the study is unavailable

it is unclear whether the depth of processing that improves retrieval of information from long term memory of it it is from greater effort being used during encoding

elaborative rehearsal

involves linking new information to information already known

more complex that maintenance rehearsal

different encoding strategies can be used to link new information to existing knowledge

strategies can include: organising information, chunking, rhymes and puns, mnemonics

this helps information commit to LTM

contexualises information for better storage and retrieval

maintenance rehearsal

straight repeating of information to memorise it— without contexualisation

this can be mental (thinking and repeating) or verbal (speaking and repeating)

e.g. repeating digits, names, times, dates

this is used to commit information to the STM often leading to forgetting information in a short time

ebbinghaus forgetting curve 1885 aim

to see how much ebbinhaus remembered at different points in time

ebbinghaus forgetting curve 1885 method

participants: ebbinghaus

IV: how often he was testing

dv: how much he could recall the information

memorised nonsense syllables and tested himself periodically

the memories weakened overtime and the biggest drop in recall occurred shortly after learning. He conducted self-experiments using himself as the sole participant and varied the intervals between recall tests.

ebbinghaus forgetting curve 1885 overcoming the curve

spaced repetition: by reviewing new information at key moments on the curve, it can reduce the rate of forgetting and enhance retention of information over time.

dementia

describes a collection of symptoms caused by disorders affecting the brain

chronic tramatic encephalopathy (CTE)

repeated damage to the brain through traumatic occurrences and gets worse overtime with no cure

there is no definitve diagnosis while the individual is alive, and is only diagnosable post-mortem in an autopsy

it causes problems with cognition and memory, physical problems, symptoms can develop after the injuriesor repeated concussions in contact sports. Symptoms may include memory loss, confusion, impaired judgment, and mood changes.

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) impacts

behaviour:

• impulsivity

• agitation

• slurred speech

• confusion due to memory loss

emotion:

• mood swings

• paranoia

• anxiety

• outbursts of angerand cognition:

alzheimers disease

the degeneration of neurons in parts of the brain due to damage to the internal structure of the axon, impacting electrical nerve impulses that travel through the neuron

this incudes neufibrillary tangles, amyloid plaques, neuron losses

it prevents parts of the cells from functioning well as damage spreads, causing irreversible damage to the brain

it can cause respiratory and unariy tract infections and falls can cause death as the dementia progresses

alzheimers disease impacts

behaviour:

• become lost and disoriented

• habits may change

• difficulty controlling body or a slow speed in messages between the brain and body

• erratic or aggressive behaviour

emotional:

• mood swings

• outbursts of anger

• anxiety

  • paranoia, fearful, suspicion

wernicke-korsakoff syndrome

the combined names for 2 different stages: wernike’s encephalopathy + korsakoff amnesic syndrome

it is caused by thiamine (B1) deficiency leading to the degeneration of neurons

longterm/chronic use of alcohol use irritates the stomach and digestive tract, interfering with the body’s ability to absorb vitamins

difficulties in forming new memories and retrieving stored memories

the degeneration of neurons are within the thalamus and hypothalamuscausing severe memory impairments, confusion, and changes in behavior.

wernicke’s encelopathy

this represents the acute phase of wernecke-korsakoff syndrome

mental confusion, vision problems, coma, hypothermia, low blood pressure

most symptoms can be reversed if detected and treated promptly and completely

korsakoff amnesic syndrome

the chronic stage of wernicke-korsakoff syndrome

problems with anterograde memories, retrieving retrograde memories

amnesia, tremors, coma, disorientation, vision problems

irreparable damage, and without treatment these disorders can be disabling and life-threatening

wernicke-korsakoff syndrome impacts

behaviour:

• slurred speech

• poor coordination and lack of balance

• confabulation— individuals make up stories to fill in gaps

emotional:

• anxiety

• feelings of frustration

• confusion