AP Psychology- Learning

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors; allows for adaptation

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (in operant conditioning); allows for the prediction of the immediate future

Stimulus

Any event of situation that evokes a response

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, watching others, or through language

Observational learning

A form of cognitive learning that allows us to learn from others' experiences

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to associate two or more stimuli and anticipate events; developed by Ivan Pavlov; the basis for Watson's behaviorism

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral stimuli (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (such as a bell tone)

Unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditional stimulus (US) (such as food)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR) (such as food triggering salivation)

Conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (NS) but now conditioned stimulus (CS) (such as salivation to bell tone)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus (NS) that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) (such as the bell tone after conditioning)

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (US) so that the neutral stimulus (NS) begins triggering the conditioned response (CR). In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response (CR); occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of a diminished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) to elicit similar responses

Ex: we don't like people that look like someone we don't like

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating another (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (CS)

Ex: dog learns light predicts tone and food -\> tries to cause light

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Ex: only bell tone used works (not other tones)

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely; allowed Skinner to develop behavior control research

Operant chamber (Skinner Box)

In operant conditioning, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal (like a rat) can manipulate to a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the rate of bar pressing

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior

Ex: progressively rewarding rats for getting closer to pushing bar

Discriminative stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement

Ex: Green traffic light

Positive reinforcement

Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Ex: Eating when hungry

Conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Ex: making money associated with meeting basic needs

Reinforcement schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; the best schedule for mastery but allows for rapid extinction

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition of a response but greater resistance to extinction; the most common schedule type

Fixed-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses

Ex: Free drink after 10 purchased

Variable-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Ex: Gambling

Fixed-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Ex: Checking mail close to delivery time

Variable-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Ex: Rechecking email

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Positive punishment

The administration of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Negative punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Biofeedback

A system of electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state such as blood pressure or muscle tension; mirrors efforts of control leading to learning of control techniques; works best for relieving tension headaches

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; the response evoked by classical conditioning

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences; the response evoked by operant conditioning

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion; showed that when rats ate a substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Robert Rescorla

American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning; showed that animals can learn the predictability of an event Ex: A shock is always preceded by a tone and sometimes a light. Since the tone is a better predictor, the rate won't fear the light

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. Ex: After exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it; doesn't need reinforcement

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution; a sudden flash involving no interaction with the environment

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Overjustification

Leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by challenging the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor Ex: Fighting with a family member -\> talk directly to that family member

Emotion-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction; used when we feel we cannot control the situation Ex: Fighting with a family member -\> go to a friend for comfort

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

External locus of control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate; currently more people feel this way -\> possible cause of psychological decline

Internal locus of control

The perception that you control your own fate; leads to more achievement, independence, health, and less depression

Self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards; leads to better adjustment, grades, and social success

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Ex. A child who sees her sister burn her fingers on a hot stove learns not to touch it

Albert Bandura

The pioneering researcher of observational learning; Experiment in which an adult models beating up a Bobo doll -\> child imitates behavior by beating up the doll using the same actions and words

Vicarious reinforcement/punishment

Learning of a behavior's consequence by observing others

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy

Overimitation

The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 5-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

Theory of mind

The ability to infer another's mental state

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Antisocial behavior

Negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior