Federal Government Exam 1

What is epistemology?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge—what knowledge is, how we know things, and how knowledge can be justified.

What is racial resentment?

Racial resentment refers to negative attitudes toward racial groups that can be connected to beliefs about race, racial inequality, and whether government policies addressing racial inequality are justified.

What are civil liberties?

Civil liberties are individual freedoms that protect people from government interference or restriction. Examples include freedom of speech, religion, and protection from unreasonable searches.

What are civil rights?

Civil rights concern equal treatment and protections from discrimination. They often require government action to protect people from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, sex, or other protected classifications.

What is a constitution?

A constitution is the basic framework for government. It establishes government institutions, distributes powers, and places limits on government authority.

What is a democracy?

A democracy is a system of government in which political power ultimately rests with the people.

• Rule by the people.

• Popular sovereignty is necessary.

• Citizens participate in government, directly or through representatives.

What is a democracy?

A democracy is a system of government in which political power ultimately rests with the people.

• Rule by the people.

• Popular sovereignty is necessary.

• Citizens participate in government, directly or through representatives.

What is popular sovereignty?

Popular sovereignty means that the people are the ultimate source of government authority.

What is popular sovereignty?

Popular sovereignty means that the people are the ultimate source of government authority.

What is Majority rule?

The opinions of the majority of people have more influence with the government than those of the minority.

What is Majority rule?

The opinions of the majority of people have more influence with the government than those of the minority.

What is Political equality?

Citizens have equal political rights.

What is Economic equality?

It concerns whether people have relatively equal economic resources or opportunities.

Is majority rule always possible in a democracy?

Majority rule does not mean the majority can do absolutely anything. Constitutional rights protect minorities from having their basic liberties taken away simply because they are outnumbered.  

 

What is the difference between equality of opportunity and equality of result?

• Equality of opportunity is the concept that society or the government must ensure that people end up economically and socially equal.

• Equality of result is the widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom and the same chance to use their talents, wealth, and efforts to reach their fullest potential and succeed in life.

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is a systematic way of studying the world by developing questions, forming hypotheses, collecting evidence, testing those hypotheses, and using the results to draw conclusions. In political science, researchers use this process to study political behavior and government rather than relying only on personal opinions or assumptions.

What is the difference between empirical and normative research?

Empirical research is based on observable evidence and data. It asks questions about what is happening and attempts to explain political events or behavior using evidence that can be observed and analyzed.

Normative research focuses on what should be. It involves values, beliefs, and judgments about what is desirable, fair, or morally right.

What do political scientists study?

They study government institutions and political behaviors.

Government institutions include what?

Political scientists study institutions such as legislatures, executives, courts, and other organizations involved in governing. They examine how these institutions are structured, how they operate, and how they make political decisions.

Political behavior is what?

Political scientists study how people and groups behave politically. This can include things such as political participation, voting, political attitudes, and interactions between citizens and the government.

What are the approaches of political scientists?

Rational choice approach, Evolutionary/biological approach, and Behavioral approach

What is the rational choice approach?

Explains political decisions by examining how people generally make decisions based on their preferences and the expected costs of those things and the benefits.

What is the evolutionary/biological approach?

This approach considers whether certain political behaviors or tendencies may be connected to characteristics that developed through human evolution.

Key idea: Political behavior can be studied partly through biological and evolutionary influences.

What is the behavioral approach?

The behavioral approach observes what people actually do in politics. Instead of just studying official government setups, political scientists using this method pay attention to how individuals and groups really behave. Usually through systematic evidence and research.

Key idea: Study what people actually do politically using observable evidence.

What were the major debates surrounding the Constitution?

• Who should hold power?

• The conflict between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.

• The concerns of whether the Constitution should have Direct or Representative Democracy.

• Lastly, debates that focus on how the government should be structured.

  
  

What was the main question about government power?

A major debate was who should have power, the states or the national government?

What was the main question about government power?

A major debate was who should have power, the states or the national government?

Who were the Anti-Federalists?

Anti-Federalists were a group of delegates who opposed the ratification and were concerned about the Constitution giving too much power to the national government. They were particularly concerned about the absence of a Bill of Rights.

What was the debate between direct and representative democracy?

Direct democracy:
Citizens participate directly in making political decisions.

Representative democracy:

Citizens elect representatives who make political decisions and pass laws for them.

What were the major debates over the structure of government?

The delegates debated:

• How much power the national government should have?

• How much power should states retain?

• How should states be represented?

• How should the branches of government be organized?

• How should government power be limited?

What profession were many delegates to the Constitutional Convention?

Many delegates were lawyers or had legal training, although the delegates also included planters, merchants, military leaders, and other prominent members of society.

What was the Constitutional Convention?

The Constitutional Convention of 1787 was the meeting in Philadelphia where delegates originally intended to address problems with the Articles of Confederation but ultimately created a new framework of government: the U.S. Constitution.

What are the Different Types of Governments?

The Confederation, Unitary, and Federal.

What is a confederation?

A confederation is a highly decentralized system in which sovereign states form a union for purposes such as mutual defense.

Key idea: A confederation is a group of independent states that join together in a union for a common purpose, such as defense.

What is a unitary system?

A unitary system is a government where most power is held by the national government.

What is a federal system?

A federal system divides governmental power between a national government and state governments.

What is federalism?

An institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution.

What are the different forms of federalism?

• New federalism

• Ad hoc federalism

• Cooperative federalism

What is Dual federalism?

A style of federalism in which the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction, creating a layer-cake view of federalism

Key idea: The federal and state governments operate in separate areas of authority. Creating a layer-cake view of federalism.

What is Cooperative federalism?

A style of federalism in which both levels of government coordinate their actions to solve national problems, leading to the blending of layers as in a marble cake.

Key idea: The federal and state governments work together to address national problems. Blending layers as in a marble cake.

What is New Federalism?

A style of federalism premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves outcomes.

Key idea: Emphasizes decentralizing policy and giving states greater responsibility.

What is Ad hoc federalism?

Ad hoc federalism refers to federal-state relationships that develop on a case-by-case basis rather than following one consistent pattern.

What is a constitution?

A Constitution is a living document that has served as the basis for the U.S. government for more than two hundred years

What is the basic purpose of a constitution?

A constitution provides the basic framework for government, including how government is organized, how power is distributed, and what limits are placed on government.

What documents and events led up to the Constitution?

Important developments included:

• Declaration of Independence

• Articles of Confederation

• Shays' Rebellion

• Constitutional Convention

• Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates

• Ratification of the Constitution

• The Articles' weaknesses helped lead to the creation of the Constitution.

What was the Shay’s rebellion?

Shays' Rebellion was an uprising of Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays over high taxes and debt. The national government could not help because it had no power to raise an army. Massachusetts stopped the rebellion on its own with probably funded armies and local militias, but the event exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, leading to calls for a stronger national government.

Why did Shay’s rebellion happen?

• Due to the Articles of Confederation, there was no strong national system for regulating commerce. States could create their own trade rules and sometimes place taxes or restrictions on goods from other states.

• Shays’ Rebellion started because Massachusetts farmers were struggling with debt and high taxes. Many farmers were losing their land because they could not pay their debts, so they protested and demanded lower taxes and relief from debt.

What are the types of grants in the federal government?

Categorical grants, block grants, and general revenue sharing

What are categorical grants?

A federal transfer formulated to limit recipients’ discretion in the use of funds and subject them to strict administrative criteria.

Key idea: Federal funds given to state or local governments for specific purposes and subject to strict requirements.

What are block grants?

A type of grant that comes with less stringent federal administrative conditions and provide recipients more latitude over how to spend grant funds.

Key idea: Grants that provide federal money for broader purposes and give state and local governments more flexibility in how they spend the fund.

What is general revenue sharing?

A type of federal grant that places minimal restrictions on how state and local governments spend the money.

Key idea: It provided federal money to state and local governments with very few restrictions on how the money could be spent. It existed from 1972 to 1986.

What are unfunded mandates?

They are Federal laws and regulations that impose obligations on state and local governments without fully compensating them for the costs of implementation.

Key idea: Federal requirements imposed on state or local governments without the federal government fully paying for the costs of carrying them out.

How many states were required to ratify the Constitution?

Nine of the thirteen states had to ratify the Constitution for it to take effect among the ratifying states.

How can an amendment be proposed?

• An amendment can be proposed by a 2/3 vote of both the House and Senate.

• It can also be proposed by a national convention called by Congress at the request of 2/3 of the state legislatures.

How is an amendment adopted (ratified)?

It must be approved by 3/4 of the states.

What was the most commonly used method of amending the Constitution?

2/3 of Congress proposes it, and 3/4 of the states ratify it.

Why are demographics important to American government?

The U.S. population is diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, age, gender, disabilities socioeconomic status, and sexuality. These differences can influence political experiences, participation, opinions, and representation.

In American government, demographics matter because different groups can have different political experiences, levels of participation, and access to government.

What is the difference between civil liberties and civil rights?

• Civil liberties is freedoms protected from government interference, such as freedom of speech and religion.

• Civil rights is equal treatment and protection under the law, such as protection from discrimination.

What are the Differences between tight states and loose states?

Tight states have strong social norms, strict constitutional rule enforcement, and a higher tolerance for order over individual deviance.

Loose states have weaker social norms, higher permissiveness, and more tolerance for non-traditional values.

What are Tests Used by the Supreme Court?

The rational basis test, Intermediate scrutiny test, Strict scrutiny test, and the Lemon test.

What is the rational basis test?

The standard used by the courts to decide most forms of discrimination; the burden of proof is on those challenging the law or action to demonstrate that there is no good reason for treating them differently from other citizens.

What is intermediate scrutiny?

The standard used by the courts to decide cases of discrimination based on gender and sex; burden of proof is on the government to demonstrate an important governmental interest is at stake in treating men differently from women.

What is the Lemon Test?

In Lemon v. Kurtzman, the Supreme Court established the Lemon test to decide whether a law or government action involving religion was allowed under the Constitution.

1. No excessive government involvement: The law or action should not require the government to become too involved in religion.

2. Must be neutral toward religion: The law or action cannot promote or discourage religious practices.

3. Must have a secular purpose: The law or action must have a non-religious purpose or reason.

What is the Lemon Test?

In Lemon v. Kurtzman, the Supreme Court established the Lemon test to decide whether a law or government action involving religion was allowed under the Constitution.

1. No excessive government involvement: The law or action should not require the government to become too involved in religion.

2. Must be neutral toward religion: The law or action cannot promote or discourage religious practices.

3. Must have a secular purpose: The law or action must have a non-religious purpose or reason.

What were major civil rights struggles involving African Americans?

Major struggles included:

• Slavery and its abolition

• Reconstruction and Black Codes

• Jim Crow segregation

• Disenfranchisement

• The Civil Rights Movement

• Voting rights

• Desegregation

• Equal protection under the law

The Fourteenth Amendment became particularly important because it established citizenship and equal protection, and it later became an important basis for applying constitutional protections to the states.

What were major civil rights struggles involving Latinos?

Major struggles included discrimination in employment and education, immigration-related discrimination, segregation, voting rights, and labor rights.

What were major civil rights struggles involving women?

Major struggles included:

• Property rights

• Employment equality

• Educational opportunities

• Voting rights

• Equal treatment under the law

• Protection against sex discrimination

What did McCulloch v. Maryland establish?

McCulloch v. Maryland established implied powers and confirmed that Congress can use the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out its constitutional responsibilities, such as a national bank. It also established that federal law takes priority over conflicting state laws.

Key idea: Necessary and Proper Clause / implied powers.

What did McDonald v. Chicago establish?

• McDonald v. Chicago established that the Second Amendment (The right to bear arms) applies to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

• The Due Process Clause says that states cannot take away a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. It protects people by requiring government to follow fair procedures and treat people fairly.

• Key idea: Applied the Second Amendment to the states.

What did Dred Scott v. Sandford establish?

The Supreme Court held that African Americans could not be U.S. citizens under the Court's interpretation at the time and that Congress lacked authority to prohibit slavery in certain territories.

Key idea: African Americans were not considered citizens under the decision.

What did White v. Regester establish?

White v. Regester (1973) established that state legislative districts cannot be designed in a way that unfairly weakens the voting power of racial or ethnic minority groups. This violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Key idea: Reapportionment / racial vote dilution.

What did Griswold v. Connecticut establish?

The Supreme Court recognized a constitutional right to privacy in the context of marital contraception. (Birth-control etc).

Key idea: Right to privacy.

What did Roe v. Wade establish?

Roe v. Wade held that the Constitution protected a right to abortion under a constitutional right to privacy.

Key idea: the right to privacy extended to abortion.

What did Schenck v. United States establish?

The case is associated with the clear and present danger test for determining when speech could be restricted.

Key idea: Speech can be restricted when it creates a serious and immediate danger of causing something illegal or harmful to happen.

What did Lawrence v. Texas establish?

The Supreme Court held that laws criminalizing private, consensual same-sex sexual conduct between adults violated the Constitution's protection of liberty.

Key idea: Same-sex intimate conduct could not be criminalized in the manner involved in the case.

What did Mapp v. Ohio establish?

The Supreme Court applied the exclusionary rule to the states, meaning evidence obtained through an unconstitutional search or seizure generally cannot be used in a criminal trial. Unless it is in the compartment of your car or at a traffic stop.

Key idea: Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches and seizures were applied to the states.

What did Miranda v. Arizona establish?

The Supreme Court required police to inform suspects in custody of certain constitutional rights before custodial interrogation, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney.

Key idea: Cops have to read the person their list of rights such as the right to an attorney or the right to remain silent. A.K.A Miranda rights.

What did Brown v. Board of Education establish?

The Supreme Court held that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.

Key idea: "Separate but equal" was no longer constitutionally valid in public education.

What did Shelby County v. Holder establish?

Shelby County v. Holder (2013): The Supreme Court struck down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act (VRA), which provided the formula used to determine which states and local governments had to get federal approval before changing their voting laws.

Key idea: This gave states and local governments more control over their election and voting policies, leading some states to change voter ID laws, polling locations, and other voting requirements.

What did Loving v. Virginia establish?

The Supreme Court struck down state laws banning interracial marriage.

Key idea: Interracial marriage.

What did Regents of the University of California v. Bakke establish?

The Court rejected the use of racial quotas in university admissions but, under the legal framework at the time, allowed race to be considered as one factor in admissions.

Key idea: No racial quotas.

What does the First amendment do?

It protects:

• Freedom of speech

• Freedom of religion

• Freedom of the press

• Right to assemble

• Right to petition the government

What does the Second Amendment do?

Protects the right to keep and bear arms.

What does the Third Amendment do?

It protects the right to not house soldiers during times of war. Sometimes this amendment is violated though.

What does the Fourth Amendment do?

It protects against unreasonable searches and seizures and establishes requirements concerning warrants.

What does the Fifth Amendment do?

Protects several rights, including:

• Grand jury protection in federal cases.

• Protection against double jeopardy.

• Protection against self-incrimination/ “I plead the fifth.”

• Due process

• Compensation when private property is taken for public use.

What does the Sixth Amendment do?

It protects the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury

What does the Sixth Amendment do?

It protects the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury

What does the Eighth Amendment do?

It protects the right to not face excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishment

What does the Ninth Amendment do?

It protects the rights that belong to the people even if they are not specifically listed in the Constitution.

What does the Tenth Amendment do?

It protects the powers not given to the federal government by the Constitution reserving them for the states or the people.

What did the Thirteenth Amendment do?

It abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime after conviction.

What does the Fourteenth Amendment do?

The 14th Amendment provides:

• Citizenship: Anyone born or naturalized in the United States is a U.S. citizen.

• Due process: States cannot take away a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law.

• Equal protection: States must provide equal protection of the laws to all people.

What does the Fifteenth Amendment do?

It prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

What does the Nineteenth Amendment do?

It prohibits denying the right to vote based on sex.