Psych 1010 Exam 2

Human development

Human development

scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

Longitudinal design

one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group ages

Cross-sectional design

several different age groups are studied at one time

Cross-sequential design

combination of the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs in which participants are first studied cross-sectionally but are also assessed longitudinally

Cohort effect

the impact on development that occurs when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience

Nature

the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

Nurture

the influence of the environment (parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors, and other factors that do not come from within the person) on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

Behavioral genetics

field of study in which researchers try to determine how much of behavior is the result of genetics and how much is due to a person’s experiences

Genetics

science of inherited traits

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

consists of two very long sugar-phosphate strands linked together by amines or bases arranged in a particular pattern; each section containing a certain sequence of amines is a gene

Amines

organic structures that contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life (hair color, muscle, and skin) and that control the life of each cell

Gene

a certain sequence of amines in DNA; located on chromosomes

Chromosomes

tightly wound strand of DNA; humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell of their bodies

Autosomes

the 22 pairs of chromosomes that determine most characteristics

Sex chromosomes

23rd pair that determines the person’s sex; XX = female, XY = male

Dominant gene

gene that actively controls the expression of a trait

Recessive gene

gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Polygenic inheritance

traits that are influenced by more than one pair of genes

Dominant genetic disorders

only one parent needs to have the gene for the disorder to be passed to offspring; ex: Huntington’s disease, Marfan’s syndrome

Recessive genetic disorders

disorders that are inherited when offspring receives two recessive genes; ex: cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disorder, phenylketonuria

Down syndrome

occurs when there is an extra chromosome in the 21st pair; almond-shaped wide-set eyes, intellectual disability, increased risk of organ failure

Klinefelter syndrome

the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY; male with reduced masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity, and excessive height

Turner syndrome

23rd pair is missing an X; leads to a female that is very short, infertile, and sexually underdeveloped

Monozygotic twins

identical twins that form when two babies come from one fertilized egg; the offspring have identical features because they have the same set of 46 chromosomes

Dizygotic twins

occurs when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

Bioethics

study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine and how those advances should influence policies and practices

Three stages of pregnancy

germinal period, embryonic period, and the fetal period

Germinal period

first two weeks after fertilization; the zygote begins dividing and moves to implant itself in the wall of the uterus; cells begin to differentiate

Placenta

specialized organ that provides nourishment and filters away the developing baby’s waste products

Umbilical cord

connects the fetus to the placenta

Embryonic period

lasts about 6 weeks (week 2-8); cells continue to specialize and become various organs and structures of a human infant; by the end of this period the embryo is about 1 inch long and has primitive features and a beating heart; no organ is fully developed or completely functional but nearly all are there

Critical periods

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant; ex: structural development of the arms and legs is only affected at 3-8 weeks

Teratogen

any substance that can cause a birth defect (drug, chemical, or virus); most common is alcohol

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)

a combination of physical, mental, and behavioral problems may be present as a result of a mother’s alcohol consumption while pregnant

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

stunted growth, facial deformities, and brain damage as a result of exposure to alcohol in pregnancy

Fetal period

tremendous growth period from 8 weeks after conception until birth; length of the fetus increases by about 20 times, weight increases, organs continue to develop and become functional; teratogens affect the function of organs rather than their structure during this time; fetus is considered full term at 38 weeks

Preterm

babies born before 38 weeks

Age of viability

22 weeks (10% chance of survival) to 26 weeks (85% chance of survival)

Miscarriage

a spontaneous loss of pregnancy likely caused by a genetic defect in the way the embryo or fetus is developing that will not allow the infant to survive; most likely within the first 3 months; 15-20% of pregnancies end in miscarriage

Immediately after birth

respiratory system begins to function, blood circulates only within the infant’s system, body temperature is now regulated by the infant’s own activity and body fat

Preferential looking

assumes that the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers the stimulus over others

Habituation

the tendency for infants to stop paying attention to a stimulus that does not change

Reflexes

innate involuntary behavior patterns; help the infant survive until they learn more complex means of interaction

5 infant reflexes

grasping, startle, rooting, stepping, and sucking

6 motor milestones

raising head and chest (2-4 months), rolling over (2-5 months), sitting up with support (4-6 months), sitting up without support (6-7 months), crawling (7-8 months), and walking (8-18 months)

Synaptic pruning

necessary loss of neurons as unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells

Visual cliff experiment

tested to see if babies can perceive the world in 3D and if they have depth perception by using a table with a tablecloth and a visual drop; 81% of infants would not crawl across the glass where the “drop” was

Cognitive development

development of thinking, problem solving, and memory

Schemas

mental framework that guides organization and interpretation of information, which forms and evolves through experiences; theory developed by Piaget

Piaget

developed four stages of cognitive development and the theory of schemas; stressed the importance of a child’s interaction with objects as a primary factor in cognitive development

Assimilation

children try to understand new information in terms of schemas they already possess

Accommodation

the process of altering old schemas to fit new information and experiences

Sensorimotor stage

birth-age 2; Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development; infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them; interact deliberately with objects; move from simple repetitive actions to complex patterns

Object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight; developed by the end of the sensorimotor stage

Symbolic thought

the ability to represent objects in one’s thoughts with symbols such as words; becomes possible by the end of the sensorimotor stage

Preoperational stage

ages 2-7; Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development; children develop language and concepts; can ask questions and explore surroundings more fully; not yet capable of logical thought; cannot “mentally reverse” actions

Animism

belief that everything is alive and has feelings just like one’s own

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes but one’s own

Centration

focusing only on one feature of some object rather than taking all features into consideration

Conservation

the ability to understand that altering the appearance of something does not change its amount, volume, or mass

Irreversibility

preoperational children cannot mentally reverse actions (Piaget theory)

Concrete operations stage

ages 7-12; Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development; children become capable of logical thought processes but still cannot think abstractly; capable of conservation and reversible thinking; can only understand concrete concepts

Abstract concepts

those that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable reality; ex: freedom

Formal operations stage

ages 12 to adulthood; Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development; when one is capable of abstract thinking; can understand concepts with no physical reality and involved in hypothetical thinking

Vygotsky

wrote about children’s cognitive development; emphasized the role of others in cognitive development; stressed the importance of social and cultural interactions with other people; believed that children develop cognitively when someone else helps them by asking leading questions and providing examples of concepts

Scaffolding

process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable (Vygotsky)

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

the difference between what a child can do alone versus what a child can do with the help of a teacher (Vygotsky)

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

neurodevelopmental disorder which causes problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills in relating to others

Theory of mind

refers to the ability to understand not only your own mental states, such as beliefs, intentions, and desires, but also to understand that other people have beliefs, intentions, and desires that may be different

Temperament

the behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well established at birth; last well into adulthood and are strongly influenced by heredity and somewhat influenced by the environment in which the infant is raised

3 basic temperament styles of infants

easy, difficult, slow to warm up

Easy temperament

regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping, and eating, and are adaptable to change; happy and are easily soothed when distressed

Difficult temperament

irregular in their schedules; unhappy about change of any kind; loud, active, and tend to be crabby

Slow to warm up temperament

associated with infants who are less grumpy, quieter, and more regular than difficult children but are slow to adapt to change; these babies will “warm up” to new situations if change is introduced gradually

Attachment

the emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver; extremely important development in the social and emotional life of the infant; usually forms within the first 6 months and shows up in many ways during the second 6 months

Stranger anxiety

wariness of strangers

Separation anxiety

fear of being separated from the caregiver

“Strange situation”

exposing an infant to a series of leave-takings and returns of the mother and a stranger; used to identify four attachment styles

Secure attachment

willing to get down from their mother’s lap soon after entering the room with their mothers; explored happily and would occasionally touch base with their mother; wary but calm around strangers when their mother was nearby; upset when their mother left and were easily soothed when she returns

Avoidant attachment

willing to explore the room but did not touch base with their mother; did not look at the stranger or the mother and seemed to have no interest or concern in the mother’s absence or return

Ambivalent attachment

have mixed feelings; infants were clinging and unwilling to explore, upset by the stranger, upset when the mother left, and hard to soothe; demanded to be picked up when the mother returned but also pushed the mother away or kicked her in a mixed reaction to her return

Disorganized-disoriented attachment

unable to decide just how they should react to the mother’s return; would approach the mother upon her return but with their eyes turned away from her as if fearful; showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces

Self-concept

the image you have yourself, based on your interactions with the important people in your life

Erik Erikson

psychodynamic theorist who emphasized the importance of social relationships in the development of personality; believed development occurs in 8 stages; each stage is an emotional crisis

Infant developmental crisis

trust vs. mistrust (learns a basic sense of trust dependent upon how their needs are met)

Toddler developmental crisis

autonomy vs. shame and doubt (begin to understand that they can control their own actions)

Preschool age developmental crisis

initiative vs. guilt (learn to take responsibility for their own behavior as they develop self-control)

Elementary school age developmental crisis

industry vs. inferiority (must learn new skills in both the academic world and the social world; compares themselves to others to measure their success or failure)

Adolescence developmental crisis

identity vs. role confusion (must decide who they are, what they believe, and what they want to be as an adult)

Early adulthood developmental crisis

intimacy vs. isolation (must find a person with whom they can share their identity in an ongoing, close, personal relationship)

Middle adulthood developmental crisis

generativity vs. stagnation (must find a way to be a creative, productive person who is nurturing the next generation)

Late adulthood developmental crisis

ego integrity vs. despair (must come to terms with the end of life and reach a sense of wholeness and acceptance of life as it has been)

Adolescence

the period of life from about 13 to the early 20s during which the young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult

Puberty

the physical changes in both primary and secondary sex characteristics that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak; occurs as the result of a complex series of glandular activities involving the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and sex gland

Primary sex characteristics

actual sex organs (penis or uterus)

Secondary sex characteristics

changes in the body such as the development of breasts and body hair

Growth spurt

the rapid period of growth that takes place at around age 10 for girls and around age 12 for boys

Personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Imaginary audience

type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they are themselves

Preconventional morality

very young children; morality of an action is based on the consequences; actions that get rewarded are right and those that earn punishment are wrong