Studied by 6 people
Human development
scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death
Longitudinal design
one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group ages
Cross-sectional design
several different age groups are studied at one time
Cross-sequential design
combination of the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs in which participants are first studied cross-sectionally but are also assessed longitudinally
Cohort effect
the impact on development that occurs when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience
Nature
the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Nurture
the influence of the environment (parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors, and other factors that do not come from within the person) on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Behavioral genetics
field of study in which researchers try to determine how much of behavior is the result of genetics and how much is due to a person’s experiences
Genetics
science of inherited traits
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
consists of two very long sugar-phosphate strands linked together by amines or bases arranged in a particular pattern; each section containing a certain sequence of amines is a gene
Amines
organic structures that contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life (hair color, muscle, and skin) and that control the life of each cell
Gene
a certain sequence of amines in DNA; located on chromosomes
Chromosomes
tightly wound strand of DNA; humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell of their bodies
Autosomes
the 22 pairs of chromosomes that determine most characteristics
Sex chromosomes
23rd pair that determines the person’s sex; XX = female, XY = male
Dominant gene
gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
Recessive gene
gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene
Polygenic inheritance
traits that are influenced by more than one pair of genes
Dominant genetic disorders
only one parent needs to have the gene for the disorder to be passed to offspring; ex: Huntington’s disease, Marfan’s syndrome
Recessive genetic disorders
disorders that are inherited when offspring receives two recessive genes; ex: cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disorder, phenylketonuria
Down syndrome
occurs when there is an extra chromosome in the 21st pair; almond-shaped wide-set eyes, intellectual disability, increased risk of organ failure
Klinefelter syndrome
the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY; male with reduced masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity, and excessive height
Turner syndrome
23rd pair is missing an X; leads to a female that is very short, infertile, and sexually underdeveloped
Monozygotic twins
identical twins that form when two babies come from one fertilized egg; the offspring have identical features because they have the same set of 46 chromosomes
Dizygotic twins
occurs when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
Bioethics
study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine and how those advances should influence policies and practices
Three stages of pregnancy
germinal period, embryonic period, and the fetal period
Germinal period
first two weeks after fertilization; the zygote begins dividing and moves to implant itself in the wall of the uterus; cells begin to differentiate
Placenta
specialized organ that provides nourishment and filters away the developing baby’s waste products
Umbilical cord
connects the fetus to the placenta
Embryonic period
lasts about 6 weeks (week 2-8); cells continue to specialize and become various organs and structures of a human infant; by the end of this period the embryo is about 1 inch long and has primitive features and a beating heart; no organ is fully developed or completely functional but nearly all are there
Critical periods
times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant; ex: structural development of the arms and legs is only affected at 3-8 weeks
Teratogen
any substance that can cause a birth defect (drug, chemical, or virus); most common is alcohol
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)
a combination of physical, mental, and behavioral problems may be present as a result of a mother’s alcohol consumption while pregnant
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
stunted growth, facial deformities, and brain damage as a result of exposure to alcohol in pregnancy
Fetal period
tremendous growth period from 8 weeks after conception until birth; length of the fetus increases by about 20 times, weight increases, organs continue to develop and become functional; teratogens affect the function of organs rather than their structure during this time; fetus is considered full term at 38 weeks
Preterm
babies born before 38 weeks
Age of viability
22 weeks (10% chance of survival) to 26 weeks (85% chance of survival)
Miscarriage
a spontaneous loss of pregnancy likely caused by a genetic defect in the way the embryo or fetus is developing that will not allow the infant to survive; most likely within the first 3 months; 15-20% of pregnancies end in miscarriage
Immediately after birth
respiratory system begins to function, blood circulates only within the infant’s system, body temperature is now regulated by the infant’s own activity and body fat
Preferential looking
assumes that the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers the stimulus over others
Habituation
the tendency for infants to stop paying attention to a stimulus that does not change
Reflexes
innate involuntary behavior patterns; help the infant survive until they learn more complex means of interaction
5 infant reflexes
grasping, startle, rooting, stepping, and sucking
6 motor milestones
raising head and chest (2-4 months), rolling over (2-5 months), sitting up with support (4-6 months), sitting up without support (6-7 months), crawling (7-8 months), and walking (8-18 months)
Synaptic pruning
necessary loss of neurons as unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells
Visual cliff experiment
tested to see if babies can perceive the world in 3D and if they have depth perception by using a table with a tablecloth and a visual drop; 81% of infants would not crawl across the glass where the “drop” was
Cognitive development
development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Schemas
mental framework that guides organization and interpretation of information, which forms and evolves through experiences; theory developed by Piaget
Piaget
developed four stages of cognitive development and the theory of schemas; stressed the importance of a child’s interaction with objects as a primary factor in cognitive development
Assimilation
children try to understand new information in terms of schemas they already possess
Accommodation
the process of altering old schemas to fit new information and experiences
Sensorimotor stage
birth-age 2; Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development; infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them; interact deliberately with objects; move from simple repetitive actions to complex patterns
Object permanence
the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight; developed by the end of the sensorimotor stage
Symbolic thought
the ability to represent objects in one’s thoughts with symbols such as words; becomes possible by the end of the sensorimotor stage
Preoperational stage
ages 2-7; Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development; children develop language and concepts; can ask questions and explore surroundings more fully; not yet capable of logical thought; cannot “mentally reverse” actions
Animism
belief that everything is alive and has feelings just like one’s own
Egocentrism
the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes but one’s own
Centration
focusing only on one feature of some object rather than taking all features into consideration
Conservation
the ability to understand that altering the appearance of something does not change its amount, volume, or mass
Irreversibility
preoperational children cannot mentally reverse actions (Piaget theory)
Concrete operations stage
ages 7-12; Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development; children become capable of logical thought processes but still cannot think abstractly; capable of conservation and reversible thinking; can only understand concrete concepts
Abstract concepts
those that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable reality; ex: freedom
Formal operations stage
ages 12 to adulthood; Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development; when one is capable of abstract thinking; can understand concepts with no physical reality and involved in hypothetical thinking
Vygotsky
wrote about children’s cognitive development; emphasized the role of others in cognitive development; stressed the importance of social and cultural interactions with other people; believed that children develop cognitively when someone else helps them by asking leading questions and providing examples of concepts
Scaffolding
process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable (Vygotsky)
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
the difference between what a child can do alone versus what a child can do with the help of a teacher (Vygotsky)
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
neurodevelopmental disorder which causes problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills in relating to others
Theory of mind
refers to the ability to understand not only your own mental states, such as beliefs, intentions, and desires, but also to understand that other people have beliefs, intentions, and desires that may be different
Temperament
the behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well established at birth; last well into adulthood and are strongly influenced by heredity and somewhat influenced by the environment in which the infant is raised
3 basic temperament styles of infants
easy, difficult, slow to warm up
Easy temperament
regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping, and eating, and are adaptable to change; happy and are easily soothed when distressed
Difficult temperament
irregular in their schedules; unhappy about change of any kind; loud, active, and tend to be crabby
Slow to warm up temperament
associated with infants who are less grumpy, quieter, and more regular than difficult children but are slow to adapt to change; these babies will “warm up” to new situations if change is introduced gradually
Attachment
the emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver; extremely important development in the social and emotional life of the infant; usually forms within the first 6 months and shows up in many ways during the second 6 months
Stranger anxiety
wariness of strangers
Separation anxiety
fear of being separated from the caregiver
“Strange situation”
exposing an infant to a series of leave-takings and returns of the mother and a stranger; used to identify four attachment styles
Secure attachment
willing to get down from their mother’s lap soon after entering the room with their mothers; explored happily and would occasionally touch base with their mother; wary but calm around strangers when their mother was nearby; upset when their mother left and were easily soothed when she returns
Avoidant attachment
willing to explore the room but did not touch base with their mother; did not look at the stranger or the mother and seemed to have no interest or concern in the mother’s absence or return
Ambivalent attachment
have mixed feelings; infants were clinging and unwilling to explore, upset by the stranger, upset when the mother left, and hard to soothe; demanded to be picked up when the mother returned but also pushed the mother away or kicked her in a mixed reaction to her return
Disorganized-disoriented attachment
unable to decide just how they should react to the mother’s return; would approach the mother upon her return but with their eyes turned away from her as if fearful; showed a dazed and depressed look on their faces
Self-concept
the image you have yourself, based on your interactions with the important people in your life
Erik Erikson
psychodynamic theorist who emphasized the importance of social relationships in the development of personality; believed development occurs in 8 stages; each stage is an emotional crisis
Infant developmental crisis
trust vs. mistrust (learns a basic sense of trust dependent upon how their needs are met)
Toddler developmental crisis
autonomy vs. shame and doubt (begin to understand that they can control their own actions)
Preschool age developmental crisis
initiative vs. guilt (learn to take responsibility for their own behavior as they develop self-control)
Elementary school age developmental crisis
industry vs. inferiority (must learn new skills in both the academic world and the social world; compares themselves to others to measure their success or failure)
Adolescence developmental crisis
identity vs. role confusion (must decide who they are, what they believe, and what they want to be as an adult)
Early adulthood developmental crisis
intimacy vs. isolation (must find a person with whom they can share their identity in an ongoing, close, personal relationship)
Middle adulthood developmental crisis
generativity vs. stagnation (must find a way to be a creative, productive person who is nurturing the next generation)
Late adulthood developmental crisis
ego integrity vs. despair (must come to terms with the end of life and reach a sense of wholeness and acceptance of life as it has been)
Adolescence
the period of life from about 13 to the early 20s during which the young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
Puberty
the physical changes in both primary and secondary sex characteristics that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak; occurs as the result of a complex series of glandular activities involving the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and sex gland
Primary sex characteristics
actual sex organs (penis or uterus)
Secondary sex characteristics
changes in the body such as the development of breasts and body hair
Growth spurt
the rapid period of growth that takes place at around age 10 for girls and around age 12 for boys
Personal fable
type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm
Imaginary audience
type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they are themselves
Preconventional morality
very young children; morality of an action is based on the consequences; actions that get rewarded are right and those that earn punishment are wrong
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