Final Study Guide

physical aggression

intentional bodily harm or injury to another person

relational aggression

nonphysical aggression intended to harm another psychological well-being

Attachment theory

Developed by John Bowlby, it emphasizes the importance of early bonds between children and caregivers and their lasting impact. Includes attachment stages: pre-attachment, attachment in the making, clear-cut attachment, and goal-corrected partnership.

attribution theory

Explains how people interpret and explain causes of behavior as internal (dispositional) or external (situational), developed by Fritz Heider and expanded by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner.

socialed deliquincy

adolescents conform to socialized norms but engage in deviant behavior due to peer pressure

unsocialized delinquency

adolescents raised with little discipline or harsh, uncaring parental supervision

differential emotions theory

suggests emotional expressions reflect and regulate emotions; includes emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, and fear

display rules

culturally learned norms dictating the appropriate expression of emotions in social contexts

Emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions; includes self-regulation and social interaction skills

identity formation

the development of distinct personality shaped during adolescence; Erikson’s identity vs. identity confusion

Imaginary audience

adolescent’s belief that other are constantly observing and judging their behavior

Individualistic orientation

Emphasizes personal identity and uniqueness

collectivistic orientation

Promotes interdependence and group harmony

Authoritarian parenting style

controlling and strict

permissive parent

lax and inconsistent

authoritative

firm but rational

uninvolved parent

indifferent and rejecting

personal fables

adolescents belief in their uniqueness and invincibility

Personality Big 5

Traits include extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness.

Characteristics of Play

onlooker (watches), parallel (side by side not together), associative (together unstructured), and cooperative play (together and structured)

Post-formal Thought

a cognitive stage in adulthood emphasizing flexibility realism and dialectical thinking

characteristics of puberty

Includes primary (reproductive organs) and secondary (visible signs) sex characteristics, and early/late maturation effects

Resiliency/Grit

The ability to recover from adversity, incorporating emotional, cognitive, and behavioral skills.

self-handicapping

Deliberate creation of obstacles to hinder performance, providing excuses for failure.

social exchange theory

A perspective where interpersonal relationships are evaluated based on perceived rewards and costs, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Vicarious Punishment

Learning to avoid behaviors by observing others being punished, emphasizing the impact of observation on behavior (as per Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory).

How does Marcia's framework of identity attachment add to the theories of Erikson?

Marcia expanded on Erik Erikson's concept of identity formation in adolescence (Identity vs. Identity Confusion) by categorizing it into four identity statuses based on commitment and exploration: identity achievement, identity moratorium, identity foreclosure, identity diffusion

What are distinctions to draw between temperament and personality?

Temperament refers to biologically rooted traits that influence behavior from infancy, such as reactivity and self-regulation.Personality encompasses enduring characteristics that emerge from temperament but are shaped by environmental influences and experiences over time.

What is largely unique about Helm’s theories of racial identity?

Janet Helms’ theory focuses on White racial identity development, emphasizing how individuals progress through stages of understanding and dismantling internalized racism. Her framework is unique as it not only addresses the experiences of racial minorities but also examines how white individuals can move toward autonomy and actively challenge systemic racism through awareness and positive racial identity development.

What types of work in the area of development started to meaningfully create gender differences?

Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory significantly advanced understanding by illustrating how societal norms shape individuals' understanding of gender roles. Additionally, Carol Gilligan’s critique of Kohlberg’s moral development theory addressed how traditional research overlooked the moral reasoning patterns of women, emphasizing care and relationships as key developmental aspects often neglected in male-dominated frameworks.

How did Gardner redefine aspects of intelligence, and what connections can be drawn to personality types?

Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, suggesting that intelligence is not a single factor but consists of varied domains like linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and bodily-kinesthetic. These intelligences align with personality traits—for instance, high interpersonal intelligence correlates with agreeableness, while intrapersonal intelligence reflects self-awareness tied to conscientiousness and openness.

What is the connection between Dweck’s notion of mindsets and the various types of motivation?

Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset Theory posits that individuals who believe abilities can be developed (growth mindset) are more motivated to embrace challenges and learn from failures. This connects to intrinsic motivation, where effort is driven by personal satisfaction. Conversely, a fixed mindset aligns with extrinsic motivation, where behavior is influenced by external rewards or fear of failure.

How did Bowlby expand on the earlier work of ethologists?

John Bowlby incorporated concepts from ethologists like Lorenz (imprinting in geese) to develop his Attachment Theory. He highlighted the evolutionary basis of attachment, emphasizing that proximity-seeking behaviors in infants enhance survival. Bowlby’s work also introduced psychological constructs like separation anxiety and stranger wariness.

How would you summarize a cycle of low self-esteem?

Negative self-view leads to anxiety or reduced effort in tasks. Poor performance reinforces feelings of inadequacy.

What characteristics are found at the highest level of Kohlberg’s model of moral/ethical development? Why might the attainment of these stages be somewhat rare?

At Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level, individuals act based on universal ethical principles and justice, transcending societal laws (e.g., civil disobedience for moral causes). Attainment is rare because it requires abstract reasoning, autonomy, and often conflicts with societal norms, which can deter individuals.

What is meant by the terms post-formal or neo-Piagetian thought?

Post-formal thought refers to cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operational stage. It is characterized by:

• Flexibility: Recognizing multiple solutions to problems.

• Dialectical Thinking: Combining contradictory ideas to form a synthesis.

• Contextualization: Applying logic in real-world, interpersonal contexts.

What are some of the ways that characteristics of dating and courtship have changed in American society?

• Colonial Era: Dating was non-existent; marriage was expected and often arranged.

• 19th Century: Courtship emerged with romantic love gaining importance.

• 1920s: Dating became a social activity, influenced by peer groups rather than family.

• 1960s-1980s: Increasing liberal views on sexuality and less emphasis on marriage as a prerequisite for intimacy.

Why are Maslow’s theories referred to as a hierarchy or a taxonomy?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a pyramid structure that organizes human needs into levels, each building on the satisfaction of the previous one. This hierarchical arrangement explains the sequential nature of fulfilling basic needs before pursuing higher-level growth.

Are there components of Galinsky’s theory of parenting that are largely culturally specific? Which ones?

• Authority Stage: Western cultures often emphasize independence, whereas collectivist societies may stress obedience and interdependence.

• Departure Stage: In collectivist cultures, adult children may remain closely integrated with family, contrasting with the Western "empty nest" experience.

What are some of the various phases of retirement, according to Atchley?

Atchley’s retirement phases include:

1. Preretirement: Preparing financially and mentally for retirement.

2. Honeymoon: Enjoying newfound freedom and pursuing hobbies.

3. Disenchantment: Realizing retirement may not meet expectations, leading to frustration.

4. Reorientation: Adjusting priorities and finding meaningful activities.

5. Stability: Establishing a fulfilling routine.

6. Termination: Health declines may reduce independence and active engagement.

How does terminal illness often represent the last of the stage theories for individuals to undergo?

Terminal illness aligns with Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's Stages of Grief, marking a final developmental phase:

1. Denial: Refusing to accept the diagnosis.

2. Anger: Frustration at the situation or others.

3. Bargaining: Attempting to negotiate for more time.

4. Depression: Grieving impending loss.

5. Acceptance: Coming to terms with the reality of death.

Consider Chomsky’s theories within the context of the nature/nurture debate.

Chomsky’s Universal Grammar theory supports the nature side, arguing that humans have an innate capacity for language, guided by the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in the brain. However, language development also requires exposure to environmental stimuli (nurture), demonstrating a complex interplay between innate mechanisms and learning from one’s surroundings.

Connect the concept of risk-taking and risk aversion to our topics of study

• Adolescent Development: Adolescents often exhibit risk-taking due to heightened sensation-seeking and underdeveloped prefrontal cortex.

• Personality Traits: Traits like openness and extraversion may correlate with higher risk-taking, while conscientiousness aligns with risk aversion.

• Decision-Making: Erikson’s stages, such as Identity vs. Role Confusion, involve risks in exploring different identities.

What are some of the components of a theory of mind as discussed in Chapter 12?

Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and emotions distinct from one’s own. Components include:

1. Recognizing that others can have false beliefs.

2. Understanding emotions and predicting others’ reactions.

3. Differentiating between intentional and accidental actions.

Sandra bem

Gender Schema Theory and Bem Sex-Role Inventory; advocated for androgyny.

Vivienne Cass

Identity Model; stages of sexual identity development.

Carol Dwweck

Growth Mindset Theory; distinguishes between fixed and growth mindsets.

Erik Erikson

Psychosocial Development; eight stages of development focusing on identity and intimacy.

Beverly Fher

factors influencing attraction; physical attractiveness, availability, exclusion criteria, exposure.

carol Gilligan

Critiqued Kohlberg’s moral development theory for gender bias, emphasizing care and relationships.

Ellen Galinsky

Six stages of parenting, from forming a parental image to evaluating past performance.

Eli Ginzberg

Career Development Theory; fantasy, tentative, and realistic periods.

Janet Helms

Racial Identity Development Theory; stages of white racial identity.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Stages of Moral Development; preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels.

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross

Stages of Grief; denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Daniel Levinson

Theory of Adult Development; life structure stages shaped by environment and personal goals.

James Marcia

Identity Status Theory; identity achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, and diffusion.

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of Needs; progression from physiological needs to self-actualization.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Development Stages; formal operational stage includes abstract reasoning.

Kathryn Sorrells

Intercultural Praxis; framework for understanding intercultural communication.

Robert Sternberg

Triangular Theory of Love; intimacy, passion, and commitment.