Unit 5- Learning and Growing

Accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

• changing schema

• dog schema is too broad- labs, pugs, poodles

Acquisition

The initial learning of a conditioned response

• dogs hearing a bell when they get food

• getting yelled at every class

Assimilation

interpreting out new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

• changing info

• dogs have four legs- all four legged animals are dogs

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together

• in classical conditioning, associating two stimuli to anticipate events

• in operant conditioning we associate a response and the consequence

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

• COVID babies

• infants attach to those who nourish them

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

• scans

• recording

Chronosystem

a key concept in ecological systems theory that refers to the dimension of time as it relates to an individual's development

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

• the office episode

• Pavlov animal studies

• behavioral approach

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

• 6/7-11 years old

• able to comprehend math transformations

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

• feeling embarrassed even with just walking into a classroom that you usually get yelled at in

• dogs salivating at the sound of a bell ringing

Conditioned Stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US)

• walking into the classroom after constantly being yelled at in there

• bell ringing when dogs get food

Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

• clay being smashed example

• cutting a slice of pizza in half and now having double the amount

Diffusion

when people wait for others to act instead of taking responsibility for a situation

• bystander effect

• wait to respond

Disorganized Insecure Attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by a lack of a clear attachment behavior, resulting in a mix of avoidance and resistance toward the caregiver. This pattern often emerges from chaotic or unpredictable caregiving environments, leading to confusion and fear in the child.

• mix

• confusion and fear

Ecological Systems Theory

a developmental theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that examines how a person's development is influenced by various interconnected environmental systems, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

• how environment shapes development

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

• nodding on a phone call

• invisible by putting hands on eyes

Emotion-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

• taking a nap after school instead of homework

• ignoring friend after a fight

Exosystem

a social system that indirectly affects a person's development, even though they are not directly involved

• loss of job leads to economic problem

• new education policies lead to change in childs learning environment

External Locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

• outside of control

• not as high performers

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response (CR) when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow the conditioned stimulus (CS)

• ringing the bell and never bringing food out- stop salivating

• feeling dread for class but teacher stops yelling

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

• doing homework

• going somewhere so you can get a reward

Fixed-Interval Schedule

a reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded only after a specific, predetermined amount of time has passed

• cannot speed up

• check every two weeks

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

a reinforcement schedule where a behavior is only rewarded after a specific, set number of responses have been made

• can speed up

• ex. free coffee after 10 drinks

Foreclosure

a stage in identity development where an individual readily accepts a role, values, or goals chosen by others without exploring other options

• low exploration, high commitment

• ex. teen decides to become doctor only because of parents

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

• 12+

• If this, then that thinking

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Habituation

An organism’s decreasing response to a stimuli with repeated exposure to it

• attention

• able to “tune back in” (socks)

Higher Order Conditioning

A conditioned stimulus (CS) can be paired with a new neutral stimulus and create a second, but often weaker, conditioned response (CR)

• adding light flashing to the bell noise then possiby the dog associating the light with food

• CS on top of CS

Internal Locus of Control

the perception that you control your own fate

• inside our control

• better performers

Instinctive Drift

the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response

Intrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

• not needing a reward

• something you’re interested in

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

• learning more when there’s a reward

• “ill give you a treat if you sit”

Law of Effect

The idea that responses that lead to positive effects are repeated, while responses that lead to negative effects are not repeated

• positive response- stays

• negative response- leaves

Learned Helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

• dog shock collar experiment

• depression

Macrosystem

the overarching cultural and societal influences that shape an individual's development

Mesosystem

the level of a person's environment that connects their microsystems and allows them to influence each other

• parents connect with kids teacher

• crossing mesosystems

Microsystem

the immediate environment that a person interacts with, including their relationships with family, friends, and institutions

• immediate environment

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

• seeing others doing something

• empathy

Moratorium

a period of exploration and experimentation during adolescence when young people try out different roles and identities

• experimenting

• identity changes

Moro Reflex

a newborn reflex where a baby instinctively extends their arms and legs outward when startled by a sudden noise or loss of support

• throw limbs out

• happens when scared

Negative Punishment

Remove a stimulus to get the behavior to stop

• taking away phone

• taking away recess

Negative Reinforcement

Remove a stimulus to get the behavior to continue

• The stimulus needs to be unwanted/ the person wants the stimulus removed

• alarm in car stops beeping once you buckle your seatbelt

• taking aspirin gets rid of headache

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

• babies don’t know that parents are still their when they’re in another room

• peekaboo

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

• associate action with consequence

• rewards and punishments

Permissive Parenting

a parenting style where parents are very lenient, set few rules, and allow their children a high degree of freedom, often acting more like a friend than a parent, with little to no enforcement of discipline or expectations for mature behavior

• avoid conflict

Positive Punishment

Present a stimulus to get the behavior to stop

• giving chores

• giving extra homework

Positive Reinforcement

Present a stimulus to get the behavior to continue

• adding a desirable stimulus

• dog sits and gets a treat

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

• 2-7

• cups with water have the same amount even if the cups change

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

• unlearned

• water, food, touch, etc

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

• ovaries

• testes

Problem-Focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

• doing homework when having a lot of homework

• talking to a friend after a fight

Reversibility

the cognitive ability to understand that actions can be reversed, leading to the same or original state

Secure Attachment

a type of attachment style where a child feels confident that their caregiver will be available and responsive to their needs,

• consistent

• parent responds to needs

Secondary/ Conditioned Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer

• pairing stimulus

• weaker

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits

• body hair

• breasts

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I”

• Infants do not typically recognize themselves in mirrors until about 18 months old

• how they know themselves

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

• babies

• peekaboo, out of sight out of mind

Seriation

the ability to arrange objects or events in a specific order based on a particular characteristic

• size

• color

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

• teaching to roll over- teaching lay first

• steps

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

• timing for life

• based on society

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and limiting and by being rewarded or punished

• children acquire identity by observing others

• “boys don’t cry”

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response (CR)

• ring bell again- dogs start salivating again

• feeling dread again after not being yelled at for months

Strange Situation Experiment

a study designed by Mary Ainsworth to observe and categorize infant attachment styles by exposing them to a series of controlled situations involving separation from their caregiver and interaction with a stranger

• attachment styles

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

• why kids get attached to their parents

• is because kids have schemas for familiar faces and when they cannot fit a new face into that schema they get stressed

Taste Aversion

learned response where an individual develops a strong dislike or avoidance for certain foods due to previous negative experiences

• eating something gross

• touching something hot

Teratogen

any substance or agent that can harm a developing fetus during pregnancy, potentially causing birth defects or developmental abnormalities in the baby

• alcohol

• drugs

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

• knowledge of others beliefs

• predicting others behaviors/thoughts

Unconditioned Response

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)

• dogs salivating at the food when they see it

• feeling embarrassed after getting yelled at by a teacher

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally/automatically triggers a response

• sneezing after smelling perfume

• a normal thing that happens

Variable- Interval Schedule

a reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded after a random or unpredictable amount of time has passed

• inconsistent timing

• checking email

Variable-Ratio Schedule

a reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded after a random and unpredictable number of responses, resulting in a high, steady rate of responding

• don’t know when and cannot increase chances

• gambling

Vicarious Conditioning

the process of learning a behavior or response by observing the reactions and consequences of another person's behavior to a similar stimulus

• learning through watching

• observational learning

Achievement

A measure of the extent to which a person has attained specific goals or standards in an educational or proficiency context. Can refer to academic achievements, personal goals, or professional milestones.

• Examples of academic achievements include high test scores or graduation with honors.

• Contrast with effort, which refers to the work put into achieving goals.

Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE)

Stressful or traumatic events occurring in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, which can have lasting effects on health and well-being.

• Examples of ACEs include witnessing domestic violence or having a family member with mental illness.

• Discuss the correlation between ACES and mental health issues in adulthood.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects possess a spiritual essence or consciousness. Often observed in children as they treat toys or dolls as if they are living beings.

• A child talking to their stuffed animal or believing it has feelings.

Anxious Insecure Attachment

A pattern of attachment where a child exhibits an inconsistent relationship with their caregiver, leading to uncertainty, anxiety, and distress in exploring their environment.

• Characteristics include clinginess or excessive worry when separated from caregivers.

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demand and low responsiveness, where parents impose strict rules and expect obedience without room for discussion or flexibility.

• Examples include punishing children harshly for disobedience without explaining why.

• Contrast with authoritative parenting, which is more balanced.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style that combines warmth and support with clear boundaries and expectations, promoting independence while still providing direction.

• An example is allowing children to express their opinions when setting rules.

• Compare with permissive parenting, which lacks firm boundaries.

Avoidant Insecure Attachment

A type of insecure attachment where children exhibit avoidance of their caregiver and do not seek comfort during distress, often as a result of neglectful or unresponsive caregiving.

• Signs include not crying when their caregiver leaves and avoiding physical contact.

• Compare with anxious insecure attachment for understanding differences.

Babinski Reflex

A reflex movement in infants characterized by the splaying of toes when the sole of the foot is stroked; this reflex typically disappears by 2 years of age and indicates healthy nervous system development.

• Compare with the grasping reflex, which is another instinctive response.

• Discuss what absence of the Babinski reflex might indicate about neurological health.

Biological Preparedness

The concept that organisms are predisposed to quickly learn certain associations that are crucial for survival, such as associating certain tastes with sickness.

• Discuss examples like taste aversion occurring after a bad experience with a food.

• Compare with general learning processes that are not tied to survival needs.