Pre-AP Biology Final

The process in which small molecules (monomers) form larger molecules referred to as polymers.

Polymerization

The building blocks of polymers, e.g amino acids.

Monomers

Sugar molecules used as energy, like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Made up of monosaccharides.

Carbohydrates

The monomers of carbohydrates; simple sugars. Things like glucose, galactose, and fructose. They're composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Monosaccharides

Macromolecules composed of amino acids, with specific functions depending on the shape.

Proteins

The building blocks of proteins. They join together to make peptides, which interact with other peptides to form proteins.

Amino Acids

Store and transmit genetic information. They're made of nucleotides. DNA & RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids.

Nucleic Acids

The building blocks of nucleic acids, they're composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Nucleotides

The only macromolecules that aren't polymers. They can store energy or act as structural components.

Lipids

Proteins that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction, also referred to catalysts because they catalyze chemical reactions.

Enzymes

The substance that an enzyme acts on.

Substrate

A temporary molecule formed when a substrate bonds with its respective substrate.

The Enzyme Substrate Complex

In the context of enzymes, a denatured enzyme has lost its shape and can no longer bond with its substrate.

Denatured

Adenosine triphosphate, the source of energy use and storage at a molecular level.

ATP

Adenosine diphosphate, basically an ATP molecule with only 2 phosphate groups.

ADP

Organisms that consume other things to obtain energy.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that make their own energy.

Autotrophs

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Equation for photosynthesis

One of the two reactions in photosynthesis.

Light dependent-reaction

Also known as the Calvin cycle, one of the two reactions in photosynthesis.

Light-independent reaction

Light energy is absorbed by pigment molecules like chlorophyll in thylakoid membranes, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP production via ATP synthase and reduces NADP+ to NADPH.

Light-dependent reaction

A difference in proton concentration across a membrane that drives ATP production.

Proton gradient

A protein that produces ATP by utilizing the proton gradient created during the light-dependent reaction.

ATP synthase

An energy carrying molecule produced by the reduction of NADP+ during the light-dependent reaction.

NADPH

A process in the light-dependent reaction where water is split to release oxygen and provide electrons to replace those lost by chlorophyll.

Water splitting

The light-independent reaction where carbon fixation occurs, converting CO2 and RuBP into G3P using ATP and NADPH.

Calvin cycle

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, a 3-carbon compound produced in the Calvin cycle that can be used to form glucose.

G3P

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP, representing the conversion of glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Cellular respiration equation

The first stage of cellular respiration where one glucose molecule is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, producing 2 NADH and a net gain of 2 ATP.

Glycolysis

The second stage of cellular respiration occurring in the mitochondria matrix, breaking down pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and producing 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

Krebs Cycle

The final stage of cellular respiration that uses high energy electrons from glycolysis and Krebs cycle to convert ADP to ATP, producing 32-34 ATP.

Electron transport chain

Organisms made from cells with membrane-bound organelles, typically multicellular and complex, with DNA stored in the nucleus.

Eukaryotes

Organisms made from cells without membrane-bound organelles, usually single-celled and less complex, with DNA stored in the nucleoid.

Prokaryotes

Organelles that store water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Vacuoles

Organelles that store and move materials between other organelles.

Vesicles

Organelles filled with enzymes that break down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into usable molecules.

Lysosomes

A network of protein filaments in eukaryotic cells that provides shape and organization.

Cytoskeleton

Thread-like structures in the cytoskeleton used to support and move the cell.

Microfilaments

Hollow structures in the cytoskeleton that maintain cell shape.

Microtubules

Protein-based filaments in prokaryotes that help the cell move.

Flagella

Protein-based filaments in prokaryotes used for attachment and movement.

Pili

Small particles of RNA and protein in the cytoplasm that produce proteins.

Ribosomes

An organelle where lipid components and proteins are assembled.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A type of endoplasmic reticulum involved in protein synthesis, characterized by ribosomes on its surface.

Rough ER

A type of endoplasmic reticulum that contains enzymes for lipid synthesis and drug detoxification.

Smooth ER

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other things for storage/release.

Golgi Apparatus

Support/protect the cell.

Cell walls

Supports the cell and regulates what goes in and out of said cell.

Cell membrane

The existence and maintenance of a relatively consistent environment in the body.

Homeostasis

Organisms made of one cell.

Unicellular organisms

Organisms that have specialized cells for each task, and therefore the individual cells are incapable of surviving by themselves.

Multicellular organisms

Make tissue, tissue makes organs, organs make systems.

Cells

Cells in multicellular organisms must communicate to survive.

Communication in cells

Cells are limited by their amounts of DNA and before they get too big they perform cell division.

Cell division

Each cell is surrounded by a small amount of fluid.

Fluid surrounding cells

Animals maintain homeostasis by gathering and responding to information, obtaining and distributing oxygen and nutrients, collecting and eliminating waste, and reproduction.

Homeostasis in animals

Turns things off; for example, shivering when you're cold.

Negative feedback

Turns on mechanics to amplify a particular response; for example, contractions during childbirth.

Positive feedback

Isolated two strands of bacteria, a R and S strain, and proposed the process of transformation.

Frederick Griffith

Discovered that DNA stores and transmits genetic information from one generation of bacteria to the next.

Oswald Avery

Proved that DNA carries genetic information, not the protein coat.

Hershey-Chase Experiment

Discovered that the percentages of Adenine & Thymine bases are equal for any piece of DNA, and the same applies to Guanine & Cytosine.

Erwin Chargaff

Used X-Ray diffraction to discover that DNA is coiled, has two strands, and that the nitrogenous bases are near the center.

Rosalind Franklin

Built 3D models of DNA and discovered the double helix model of DNA.

Watson & Crick

Conducted the pulse chase experiment which proved the semiconservative model of DNA replication.

Meselson-Stahl Experiment

A nucleic acid made of nucleotides joined into strands by covalent bonds. Contains genetic information.

DNA

Occurs when a DNA strand is unwound, and each strand acts as a template for a new strand to be synthesized.

Replication

A nucleotide that bonds with thymine (T).

Adenine

A nucleotide that bonds with adenine (A).

Thymine

A nucleotide that bonds with cytosine (C).

Guanine

A nucleotide that bonds with guanine (G).

Cytosine

Single stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose and has uracil instead of thymine.

RNA

A messenger that delivers instructions via codons.

mRNA

Combines proteins to form ribosomes.

rRNA

Carries amino acids to the ribosome.

tRNA

Long chains of amino acids; proteins are just long chains of amino acids.

Polypeptides

Read in 3 base increments, with 64 possible codons.

Genetic code

AUG is the 'start' codon.

Start codon

UGA, UAA, & UAG are 'stop' codons.

Stop codons

The process of synthesizing a RNA molecule from a DNA template, occurring in the nucleus for eukaryotes and in the cytoplasm for prokaryotes.

Transcription

The assembly of a protein from mRNA, occurring in the cytoplasm.

Translation

The first step of translation, starting when a ribosome attaches to an mRNA in the cytoplasm.

Initiation

The second step of translation, where the ribosome shifts the mRNA and directs tRNA to bring specific amino acids.

Elongation

The third and final step of translation, where the polypeptide grows until a stop codon is read.

Termination

A theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein.

Central dogma of molecular biology

Heritable changes in genetic information.

Mutations

Mutations that can be point or frameshift mutations, usually occurring during DNA replication.

Gene mutations

A type of gene mutation where a base is replaced with a different base.

Point mutation

Mutations that involve insertions or deletions of bases.

Frameshift mutations

A type of frameshift mutation where a base is added into the strand.

Insertions

A type of frameshift mutation where a base is deleted from the strand.

Deletions

A process where offspring are made who are genetically identical to the parent.

Asexual reproduction

A method of asexual reproduction where the parent cell splits in half to create two new organisms.

Binary fission

A method of asexual reproduction where the parent cell creates a small cell known as a bud.

Budding

A method of asexual reproduction where the parent splits into fragments, each forming a new organism.

Fragmentation

A process where two parents create genetically unique offspring.

Sexual reproduction

Haploid sperm/egg cells created via meiosis.

Gametes

Cell division that creates gametes, sperm and egg cells.

Meiosis

A cell with two sets of chromosomes.

Diploid

Cells with only one set of chromosomes.

Haploid