Developmental Psychology: Key Theories, Stages, and Research Methods

Who was the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology?

Francis Cecil Sumner

What did Kenneth Bancroft Clark demonstrate through his doll experiments?

The harmful psychological effects of segregation.

What significant contribution did Melanie Klein make to psychology?

She was the first to deem children's play as meaningful and focused on the unconscious mind of children.

What is the definition of development in psychology?

The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span, involving both growth and decline.

Why is studying lifespan development important?

It helps us understand all parts and stages of life, improving our ability to serve others.

What are the key characteristics of the lifespan perspective according to Baltes?

Lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.

What does 'normative age-graded' refer to in development?

Events that are typically experienced at a certain age, such as starting school around age 6.

What are 'normative history-graded influences'?

Events that are unique to a particular generation, such as wars.

What are 'non-normative events'?

Individual events that do not occur at predictable times.

What is the socio-cultural context of ethnicity?

It encompasses cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.

How is social economic status defined?

By grouping people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.

What does gender refer to in the context of development?

A mosaic of categories related to femininity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms.

What is culture in the context of developmental psychology?

The behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of a group that are passed on through generations.

How do lifespan or developmental psychologists influence social policy?

They conduct studies aimed at leading to effective social policies that protect the well-being of children and older adults.

What are the three processes involved in development?

Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.

What does the biological process of development entail?

Changes in an individual's physical nature, such as genetics and nutrition.

What does the cognitive process of development refer to?

Changes in thought, intelligence, and language.

What does the socioemotional process involve?

Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality.

What are the four ages of development?

First age: childhood and adolescence; Second age: prime adulthood (20-59 years); Third age: 60-79 years; Fourth age: 80+ years.

What are the three developmental patterns?

Normal, pathological, and successful aging.

What does the nature/nurture debate address?

The extent to which development is influenced by biological inheritance versus environmental experiences.

What does stability/change refer to in developmental psychology?

The degree to which early traits persist or change throughout life.

What is continuity/discontinuity in development?

The degree to which development involves gradual change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).

What is a theory in the context of psychology?

An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that explains phenomena and facilitates predictions.

What is a hypothesis?

Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested for accuracy.

What are the four steps of the scientific method in lifespan development research?

1. Conceptualize a process or problem; 2. Collect research information; 3. Analyze the data; 4. Draw conclusions.

What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory?

It posits that personality consists of three parts: id, ego, and superego, and includes five stages of development.

What is the main motivation for behavior according to psychosexual theory?

Sexual in nature.

Who developed the psychosocial theory and how many stages does it have?

Erikson developed the psychosocial theory, which has 8 stages.

What is a key aspect of psychosocial development according to Erikson?

Development occurs across the lifespan with crises at each stage.

What is the main contribution of cognitive theory according to Piaget?

Development follows a sequence and is an active process.

What are the two processes involved in Piaget's cognitive theory?

Assimilation and accommodation.

What does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasize?

The importance of social interaction in learning.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

The difference between what a child can do independently and with help.

What does information processing theory focus on?

How individuals process information and strategize about it.

What is the primary focus of behavioral theory?

Observable behaviors and measurable actions.

Who is associated with classical conditioning?

John Watson.

What is operant conditioning and who developed it?

A learning process through reinforcement and punishment, developed by B.F. Skinner.

What does Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasize?

The reciprocal relationships between behavior, cognition, and environmental factors.

What is the main criticism of behavioral and social cognitive theories?

They place too little emphasis on cognition and developmental changes.

What is imprinting in ethological theory?

Rapid innate learning involving attachment to the first object seen.

What is the significance of sensitive periods in attachment theory?

They are crucial times for forming attachments that promote optimal social development.

What are the four systems in Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory?

Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.

What is the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

It refers to how all systems are affected by each other and by events over time.

What is the eclectic approach in developmental psychology?

It incorporates the best features from multiple theoretical orientations.

What are some methods of data collection in developmental research?

Observation, surveys, interviews, standardized tests, case studies, and physiological measures.

What distinguishes experimental research from non-experimental research?

Experimental research involves manipulation of an independent variable and can establish cause/effect.

What is a cohort effect?

Characteristics determined by a person's time of birth or generation rather than their actual age.

What is the role of genes in development?

They are units of hereditary information that help cells reproduce and manufacture proteins.

What is methylation and its role in gene expression?

Methylation involves tiny molecules that can turn genes on or off, affecting behavior.

How many genes do humans have?

Approximately 19,969.

What is the significance of proteins in biological processes?

Proteins maintain life and are essential for cellular functions.

What are genes composed of?

Units of hereditary information composed of DNA.

What is the primary role of genes?

Help cells reproduce themselves and manufacture proteins that maintain life.

What was the significance of the Human Genome Project?

Completed in 2003, it mapped all human DNA and found humans have about 20,000-25,000 genes, laying the foundation for studying how genes influence traits and diseases.

What are Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS)?

Studies that compare DNA across people to find genes linked to diseases, such as Alzheimer's and diabetes.

What is linkage analysis?

A method that studies families to see which DNA markers are inherited with certain disorders.

What is Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)?

A fast and cost-effective DNA sequencing method used to study rare genetic variants.

What is the 1000 Genomes Project?

A project that sequenced individuals worldwide to map common genetic variations.

What is genetic imprinting?

A phenomenon where the expression of a gene differs depending on whether it is inherited from the mother or father.

What are longevity genes?

Genes that make individuals more likely to live longer and less vulnerable to certain diseases.

What are susceptibility genes?

Genes that make individuals more vulnerable to accelerated aging and the development of specific diseases.

What is the epigenome?

The area of the genome devoted to gene regulation, which changes throughout life and is influenced by environmental factors.

What is a zygote?

A single cell formed through fertilization.

Why is genetic variability important in a population?

It increases genetic variability and provides more traits for natural selection to act on.

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype refers to the genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to the observable characteristics influenced by the genotype and environment.

What are some examples of chromosomal abnormalities?

Down syndrome (extra 21st chromosome), Klinefelter syndrome (extra X chromosome), Turner syndrome (missing X chromosome).

What is hemophilia?

A sex-linked disorder characterized by delayed blood clotting.

What is PKU?

A gene-linked disorder where individuals cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine, treated with a special diet.

What is sickle cell disease?

A recessive gene disorder that causes red blood cells to become hook-shaped, impairing oxygen transport.

What is behavior genetics?

The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development.

What are the three types of heredity-environment correlations?

Passive, evocative, and active correlations.

What is CRISPR?

A gene editing tool that uses a protein and guide RNA to cut DNA at specific locations, allowing for gene modification.

What is the role of the trophoblast in prenatal development?

The outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support for the developing embryo.

What happens during the embryonic stage of prenatal development?

Development of the embryo's three layers (endo, meso, ectoderm) and formation of life support systems like the placenta.

What is organogenesis?

The process during embryonic development where organs are formed.

What are the critical periods of development?

Stages in which certain structures and systems develop, crucial for proper growth and function.

What are the three layers of cells formed during early pregnancy?

Endoderm (inner layer), Mesoderm (middle layer), Ectoderm (outer layer).

What systems develop from the endoderm layer?

Digestive and respiratory systems.

What systems develop from the mesoderm layer?

Circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system.

What systems develop from the ectoderm layer?

Nervous system, brain, sensory receptors, and skin parts.

What is the role of the placenta?

It connects the mother and baby and serves as the site of nutrient and waste exchange.

What does the umbilical cord do?

Links the baby to the placenta and contains blood vessels (2 arteries, 1 vein).

How do nutrients and oxygen transfer from mother to baby?

Through the mother's blood to the placenta, then through the umbilical vein to the baby.

How are waste and CO₂ removed from the baby?

From the baby's blood to the umbilical arteries, then to the placenta and mother's blood.

What is the significance of the blood barrier in the placenta?

Mother's and baby's blood do not mix directly; exchange occurs through a thin barrier.

What are teratogens?

Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental issues in the fetus.

What factors influence genetic susceptibility to teratogens?

The genotype of the mother and fetus, including how the mother metabolizes drugs.

What are some common teratogens?

Prescription and non-prescription drugs, maternal age, exposure to chemicals, diseases (e.g., HIV, Rubella).

What is the prevalence of postpartum depression?

10-14% of new mothers experience postpartum depression.

What is the APGAR scale used for?

To assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth.

What does effacement refer to in the context of childbirth?

The gradual thinning, shortening, and drawing up of the cervix, measured in percentages.

What is dilation in childbirth?

The gradual opening of the cervix, measured in centimeters from 0 to 10.

What are Braxton Hicks contractions?

False contractions that prepare the body for birth without causing dilation or effacement.

What is the cephalocaudal pattern of growth?

Developmental sequence where growth occurs from the head downwards.

What is the proximodistal pattern of growth?

Developmental sequence where growth starts at the center of the body and moves outward.

How much does a baby's height increase in the first year?

Babies double their length in the first year.

What is myelination?

The process of encasing axons with fat cells to speed up neural transmissions.

What are the two main changes in neurons during infancy?

Blooming (increased connections) and pruning (removal of unused connections).

What is the significance of synaptic pruning?

Connections that are used survive and strengthen, while unused ones are eliminated.