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Empirical approach
A study based on observation, investigation, or experiments rather than abstract reasoning or theoretical analysis.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Operational definitions
Descriptions of behavior that are observable and measurable, ensuring clarity and replicability.
Descriptive methods
Used to define the who, where, and what of human behavior and psychological phenomena.
Correlational methods
Research conducted to assess the relationship between two or more variables.
Experimental methods
Manipulating one variable to determine if it causes change in another variable.
Naturalistic observations
A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environments.
Sampling bias
When some members of a population are more likely to be selected in a sample than others, affecting generalizability.
Scatterplot
A graph that shows the relationship between two quantitative variables measured for the same individuals.
Regression towards the mean
The tendency for extreme results to move closer to the average upon re-measurement.
Quantitative research
Research that deals in numbers, focused on numeric data and objective analysis.
Descriptive statistics
Statistics that describe and measure characteristics of groups.
Inferential statistics
Statistics that determine the probability that findings apply to a larger population.
Statistical significance
Occurs when sample averages are reliable and can be generalized.
Ethical guidelines
Principles that ensure the integrity, dignity, and welfare of research participants are protected.
Generalizability
The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to broader populations.
Experiment
A research method where the researcher manipulates one variable to observe the effect on another variable.
Survey
A research tool used to gather information from respondents about their attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics.
Case study
An in-depth examination of an individual, group, or phenomenon, often used in qualitative research.
Qualitative research
Research that focuses on understanding meaning and experiences rather than numerical analysis.
Reliability
The consistency of a measure or assessment, ensuring it produces stable and consistent results over time.
Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Longitudinal study
A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods.
Cross-sectional study
A study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.
