AP Human Geography Definitions

range

the maximum distance that people are willing to travel to gain access to a service

primate city

when the largest city in a country has at least twice the population of the country’s next largest city

exurb

a region beyond the suburbs that is predominantly residential and typically characterized by low-density, rural or semi-rural development, and a significant commuting distance from the nearest urban center.

bid rent theory

explains how the price and demand for land use varies according to the distance from the central business district of a city, with land uses requiring high accessibility and visibility being located closer to the city center and lower accessibility and visibility land uses located farther away from the city center.

Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model

describes urban land-use patterns in which a city is divided into a series of concentric rings, each with distinct socio-economic characteristics and development patterns. The model proposes that as a city grows, new zones are added in a predictable pattern from the city center outward.

flaw of concentric zone model

does not account for physical barriers or gentrification.  It is assumes and isotropic plain. It does not account for globalization or political concerns.  Zones are never one purpose.

hoyt’s sector model

explains urban land-use patterns in which a city grows outward from the center along transportation corridors, creating distinct sectors or wedges with different socio-economic characteristics that tend to persist over time. The model proposes that development patterns are shaped by transportation infrastructure and the location of high-status areas within the city.

flaw of hoyt’s sector model

Areas of low cost living not usually correct \n Assumes no city planning \n Does not take suburbs into account

Harris & Ullman Multiple-Nuclei Model

explains urban land-use patterns as the result of multiple centers of development or "nuclei," each with its own unique set of functions and characteristics, that interact with each other to shape the overall growth and structure of the city.

flaw of Harris & Ullman Multiple-Nuclei Model

No influence of height or government considered. \n Not based on any actual city \n Gives a very fuzzy unclear spatial picture 

Harris’ Galactic City (Periphery) Model

describes urban land-use patterns in which a city develops multiple centers of economic activity and residential areas, creating a decentralized, polycentric urban structure that resembles a collection of interconnected, spatially distinct satellite cities. The model emphasizes the role of transportation infrastructure, such as highways and airports, in shaping urban growth and development.

industrial revolution

**Rapid transformation** of economy through the intro of **machines, new tech, new chemical** processes in Europe/US in **1760-1830.**

smart growth policies

land use and development strategies that prioritize sustainable and equitable growth, with a focus on compact, mixed-use development, public transit, and preservation of open spaces.

new urbanism

urban design movement that promotes walkable neighborhoods, mixed-use development, and a range of housing types to create vibrant, diverse, and sustainable communities that prioritize people over cars.

mixed land use

practice of combining different types of land uses, such as residential, commercial, and recreational, within the same geographic area to create more diverse, walkable, and sustainable communities.

transport oriented development

planning approach that emphasizes compact, mixed-use development near public transit stations, with the goal of reducing reliance on automobiles, increasing access to transit, and promoting sustainable and equitable urban growth.

greenbelt

areas of protected land surrounding urban areas, designed to prevent urban sprawl, preserve open spaces, and provide recreational opportunities.

greenspace

areas of open land within urban areas, such as parks, gardens, and other natural or landscaped areas, that provide aesthetic, ecological, and social benefits to urban residents.

slow growth city

a city that implements policies and practices that limit population growth and development, often with the goal of preserving the city's character, protecting the environment, and promoting social equity.

redlining

the practice of denying loans, insurance, and other financial services to residents of certain neighborhoods, often based on their race or ethnicity.

blockbusting

the practice of inducing homeowners to sell their homes at a low price by spreading fear and panic about the arrival of minority groups in the neighborhood, and then reselling the homes at a higher price to those same minority groups.

inclusionary zones

Changing zoning laws to include various levels of income/races in the same area.

local food movements

Efforts to try to get rid of food deserts and have more accessible food (Ex: Roof gardens, community gardens, etc).

urban renewal

the process of renovating or redeveloping areas of a city, often through demolition and reconstruction, with the aim of improving living conditions, economic growth, and social welfare.

gentrification

process of renovating or redeveloping a low-income urban neighborhood, often leading to the displacement of its original residents and the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.

threshold

the minimum number of people required to support a business

neoliberal trade policies

Agreements that favor free market economics/privatization over government control.

multiplier effect

Investment in one industry that leads to creation of new jobs.

offshoring

the practice of relocating business operations, processes, or services from a company's home country to another country with the aim of reducing costs and gaining competitive advantages.

outsourcing

a business practice in which a company hires a third-party service provider to perform certain tasks or services that are normally carried out in-house.

2nd urban revolution

Industrial innovations in mining/manufacturing that led to increased urban growth (Ind. Rev 1800s).

global city

A control center of the global economy, in which major decisions are made about the world’s commercial networks/financial markets.

suburb

A non-self sufficient populated area on the outskirts of a city.

urban sprawl

the uncontrolled and unplanned expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped lands.

edge city

a large commercial and business district located on the outskirts of a major urban area, typically at the intersection of major highways or near an airport.

boomburb

a rapidly growing suburban community that has experienced significant population growth and economic development in recent years and are characterized by low-density development, sprawling land use patterns, and a mix of residential and commercial uses..

weber’s least cost theory

theory explains the spatial distribution of economic activities and the location of human settlements based on the principles of cost minimization and profit maximization.

subsistence agriculture

intensive mixed farming that provides for all of the food and material needs of a household

intertillage farming

planting fast-growing crops alongside slow-growing crops, allowing a farmer to harvest the fast-growing crop before the slow-growing crop shades it out

vegetative planting

where the shoots, stems, and roots of existing wild plants were collected and grown together

seed agriculture

where the fertilized seed grains and fruits of plants were collected and replanted together

second agricultural revolution

Technological changes in agriculture were enabled by parallel innovations in manufacturing from the Industrial Revolution.

green revolution

occurred in the 1950s and 1960s when tropical plant and animal hybrids and chemical fertilizers and pesticides began to be used in Third-World agriculture

fair trade movement

focuses on ensuring that small farmers and artisans are paid a fair price for their products

commodity chain

links between producers and consumers in the journey from raw material to delivery of a finished product

commodity dependence

when a single product or type of good accounts for more than 60% of its exports

von thunen’s model

land use (the type of farming) is determined by how labor intensive the type of farming is through 5 rings.

federal government

Power is divided by a central state government.

devolution

transfer in governmental power from a central government to a lower level of government, causing states/nations to fragment into autonomous regions.

irredentism

When a state wants to annex a territory whose population is ethnically similar.

supranational organization

When 3 or more states form an organization to achieve benefits for all members.

centripetal force

A force that unites a state/nation through similar traditions, beliefs, etc.

centrifugal force

A force that divides a state/nation through disagreeing factors.

agriculture

The practice of farming, cultivation of soil for growing crops, and rearing animals to provide food/other products (wool, leather, etc.).

intensive agriculture

requires lots of labor input, or is focused on a small plot of land, or both

extensive agriculture

requires limited labor input, or is spread across large areas of land, or both

transhumanace

when groups move seasonally not only to avoid harsh climates, climates, but also to follow animal herds and walk to areas where native plants were in fruit

pastoralism

agriculture based on the seasonal movement of animals from winter to summer pastures and back again

nomadic herding

a practice where whole communities would drive their herds from one seasonal grazing area to another following an annual cycle that was repeated over centuries

mixed farming

where multiple crops and animals exist on a single farm to provide diverse nutritional intake and non-food items

unitary government

Power is concentrated by a strong central government.

territoriality

The connection people have to the land they claim as their own.

neocolonialism

the practice of MDCs and large corporations controlling LDCs through economic power.

shatterbelt

Area where there as strong political/cultural divisions and stress from external political forces.

choke point

Areas where the geography creates narrow opening that restricts trade and travel.

landlocked boundaries

Countries that have no access to the ocean and have limited access to global trade.

definitional boundary dispute

Countries do not agree on original intended boundary.

locational boundary dispute

Original boundary has shifted causing people to question the original boundary

allocational boundary dispute

Dispute over the use of what is on/or in the boundary and is usually fought over resources.

boundaries

can formalize national/cultural identities by concentrating nationalities in one area.

gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to give a political party an advantage over the other.

cracking

A type of gerrymandering that splits a group so they are not the majority.

packing

A type of gerrymandering that combines a group into one district so they can’t win more than one/few districts.

Long lot patterns

have a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a very long lot shape behind.

place

A specific point on earth with human and physical characteristics that distinguish it from other places

sequent occupancy

the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place’s history

relative scale/scale of analysis

the level of aggregation, or in other words, the level at which you group things together for examination

formal regions

areas of space that possess some homogeneous characteristic or uniformity

functional/nodal regions

areas that have a central place, or node, that is a focus or point of origin

vernacular regions

An area that people believe exist as part of their cultural identity

absolute location

a point or place on the map using coordinates such as latitude and longitude

relative location

the location of a place compared to a known place or geographic feature

site

the physical characteristics of a place

situation

the place’s interrelatedness with other places

distance decay

the farther away different places are from a place of origin, the less likely interaction will be with the original place

Space-Time Compression

Time-space compression refers to the set of processes (new tech, communication) that cause the relative distances between places to grow smaller.

Thematic Maps

Show data; thematic map displays spatial patterns and relationships between them (choropleth maps)

choropleth map

a thematic map that expresses the geographic variability of a particular theme using color variations

isoline map

calculates data values between points across a variable surface (color blending)

dot density map

uses dots to express the volume and density of a particular geographic feature

flow-line map

uses lines of varying thickness to show the direction and volume of a particular geographic movement pattern

cartograms

distorts size based on value of variable

Robinson projection

Most used, curved edges, distorts all parts of globe, not useful for navigation.

Mercator Projection

Distorts poles of the globe, map Europe look more powerful

Relative Distance

Direction that can be described as a position (left)

Absolute Distance

Direction that can be measured with standard units of length

Reference Map

Shows geographical data, oceans, cities, borders, roads, ect

Globalization

how trade and technology have made the world into a more connected and interdependent place.

Interdependence

dependent on one another in some way

Environmental Determinism

theory that environment causes social development or the idea that natural environment influences people