The Reformation

Who invented the printing press and when?

Johannes Gutenberg in 1455.

Why was the printing press important to the Reformation?

Allowed mass production of books, especially the Bible; increased literacy; encouraged personal interpretation of scripture; reduced dependence on clergy; spread Reformation ideas quickly (like Luther’s).

What were Martin Luther’s main beliefs?

1. Salvation by faith alone (Sola Fide), not good works. 2. Bible is the sole authority, not the pope or Church traditions. 3. Priesthood of all believers – all Christians can access God directly (don’t need priests). 4. Rejected indulgences and most sacraments (kept only baptism and communion). 5. Rejected Church hierarchy.

What was the significance of Luther’s 95 Theses?

Challenged sale of indulgences and Church authority; sparked the Protestant Reformation; led to major religious, political, and social change; spread quickly due to the printing press.

Who was involved in the Diet of Worms and what was its outcome?

Luther was tried for his beliefs; refused to recant. Charles V issued the Edict of Worms, declaring Luther an outlaw and heretic. No one could help him, but he was protected by Prince Frederick of Saxony and continued his work.

What were John Calvin’s beliefs?

1. Predestination – God has already determined who is saved/damned. 2. Theocracy – government by divine authority in Geneva. 3. Calvinists believed they were doing God’s work. 4. Calvinism spread to France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans).

Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church?

The pope wouldn’t annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Henry wanted a male heir.

How did the Catholic Church respond to the Reformation?

Catholic/Counter Reformation: 1. Jesuits – founded by Ignatius of Loyola; missionaries who obeyed the pope and restored Catholicism. 2. Reforms of the papacy – Pope Paul II created a reform commission (1535). 3. Council of Trent (1545) – reaffirmed Catholic teachings; pope interprets Bible; priests stay celibate; faith + good works needed; banned indulgence sales; pope became a spiritual (not political) leader.

What was the Edict of Nantes and what did it do?

Issued by Henry IV in 1598. Made Catholicism official religion of France, but gave Huguenots the right to worship and hold political office – satisfied both Catholics and Huguenots.

What caused the Thirty Years’ War?

1. Religious conflict – Peace of Augsburg didn’t recognize Calvinism. 2. Power struggles. 3. Territorial ambitions.

What were the effects of the Thirty Years’ War?

1. Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended the war. 2. Gave territory to Sweden, France, and allies. 3. Weakened the Holy Roman Empire. 4. Divided Germany into 300 states – each could choose its religion and conduct foreign policy. 5. France rose in power. 6. Sweden gained Baltic territory. 7. Germany was devastated.

What was the Treaty of Westphalia and why was it important?

Ended the Thirty Years’ War (1648); gave land to Sweden, France, and allies; weakened Holy Roman Empire; established national sovereignty – each state ruled itself without foreign interference; started modern state system.

What is capitalism?

An economic system where individuals and businesses own property and operate for profit, with little government interference.

How were the Dutch impacted by capitalism?

They thrived under it – gained wealth through trade, banking, and the Dutch East India Company.

What is mercantilism?

Economic system where nations try to increase wealth by controlling trade and acquiring colonies; aim to export more than import.

How did Spain use mercantilism?

Gained gold/silver from colonies, but later suffered due to inflation and overreliance on imports – economy weakened.