CHINA

Loess soil

Soil found in the Yellow River region.

Xia Dynasty

A Bronze Age dynasty considered the first Chinese dynasty. Long thought legendary, recent evidence from the Erlitou site (Henan Province) has surfaced, revealing tombs with pottery, ornamental jade, clay irrigation pipes, and the world's oldest ritual bronze vessels.

Shang Dynasty

A Bronze Age dynasty considered the historical beginning of China, confirmed by archaeological and historical sources. Featured walled cities, palaces, royal tombs, a theocratic government led by a king as high priest, worship of Di (Shangdi), divine right, and a patriarchal system. Practiced ancestor worship and two forms of human sacrifice (xunzang and renji).

Theocracy (Shang Dynasty)

A form of government in the Shang Dynasty where the king was also the high priest and mediated between the physical and divine worlds.

Di (Shangdi)

The high god worshipped by the Shang ruling class, later referred to as Shangdi, from whom the king received divine mandates. Shang political theology frames Shang-Di as an incorporeal, omnipresent, and omnipotent metaphysical deity.

Divine Right (Shang Dynasty)

The belief that God (Di/Shangdi) communicated with the Shang king, and the king then communicated with the people, implying his rule was divinely sanctioned.

Patriarchal System (Shang Dynasty)

A system where kingship passed through the male line, typically from father to son, or elder brother to younger brother if no son.

Shang Dynasty Succession

Kingship passed through the male line, typically from father to son, or elder brother to younger brother if no son.

Ancestor Worship (Shang Dynasty)

Shang religious practices emphasized worshipping ancestors, viewing the spiritual domain as simply an extension of the human world.

Shang Dynasty Human Sacrifice (Xunzang \text{殉葬})

The practice where a Shang king’s personal slaves and servants were expected to commit ritual suicide or be buried alive alongside him upon his death.

Shang Dynasty Human Sacrifice (Renji \text{人祭})

Refers to a massive scale human offering sacrifice practiced only during the Shang dynasty, primarily involving male prisoners of war and field slaves. These victims were typically executed via decapitation to appease Shang-Di during severe food shortages (e.g., King Wuding once beheaded 9,000 enemy soldiers).

Chinese Writing (Shang Dynasty)

The Shang are the first people to introduce Chinese writing.

Oracle Bones

Used by priests in ancient Chinese divination ceremonies during the Shang Dynasty. Scripts concerning matters of state were carved onto them, the Shang king interpreted as Shang-Di’s divine answers. They provide examples of early Chinese writing.

Oracle Bone Script

The earliest known Chinese writing system, a highly developed iconographic form that resembles contemporary Chinese characters and is written in grammar consistent with classical written Chinese. Used by Shang rulers during state divination ceremonies.

Yin Yang

A concept originating from the Shang Dynasty, symbolizing the balance of polar opposites in the universe, such as light and dark, good and evil, male and female. Early inscriptions described natural phenomena like sunlight (yang) during the day and lack of sunlight (yin) at night.

Yin (early Chinese meaning)

Referred to "a closed door, darkness and the south bank of a river and the north side of a mountain," associated with night and a lack of sunlight.

Yang (early Chinese meaning)

Referred to "height, brightness and the south side of a mountain," associated with daytime and sunlight.

Shang Social Classes

Four classes: the king and aristocracy, the military, artisans/craftsmen, and peasants (farmers, possibly slaves or serfs).

Fu Hao

One of the consorts of Shang King Wu Ding, she was his number one advisor and general. Her tomb, discovered near Anyang, is the best-preserved from that era, containing military articles, artifacts, jewelry, and over 6,000 cowrie shells (Shang currency), confirming her status as a military leader.

Cowrie Shells (Shang Dynasty)

Served as a form of currency during the Shang period, as evidenced by large quantities found in Fu Hao's tomb.

Zhou Dynasty

The longest ruling Chinese dynasty (lasting over 800 years with only 34 rulers), known for introducing the Mandate of Heaven, the Dynastic Cycle, feudalism, and coinage. Its king was referred to as the “Son of Heaven”.

Feudalism (Zhou Dynasty)

A system introduced by the Zhou Dynasty where emperors granted land to royal princes (vassal states), who over time became independent, weakening the emperor's direct control over resources.

Dynastic Cycle: Step 1 (New Dynasty)

A new dynasty restores peace, redistributes land to the peasants, appoints loyal officers and officials, and repairs defensive walls, roads, canals, and irrigation projects. This period is referred to as a “honeymoon period”.

Dynastic Cycle: Step 2 (Aging Dynasty)

Characterized by corrupt officials, losing control of the provinces, imposing heavy taxes on peasants, and allowing defensive walls to decay. Eventually, losing the Mandate of Heaven.

Dynastic Cycle: Step 3 (Problems and New Claim)

Problems symbolic of the lost Mandate of Heaven (such as peasant rebellions, floods, famine, earthquakes, armed bandits, and foreign invasions) lead to a New Dynasty claiming the Mandate of Heaven and the cycle restarting.

Mandate of Heaven

The Zhou Dynasty belief that heaven blesses the emperor's rule. Corruption or misrule risks losing this mandate, leading to signs like natural disasters and rebellions. Crucially, it grants people the right to revolt against an unjust emperor.

Mandate of Heaven vs. Divine Right

Both assert divine approval for a ruler. The key difference is that the Chinese Mandate of Heaven grants subjects the right to revolt against an unjust ruler, whereas European Divine Right allows no such right, considering rebellion a crime and a sin against God.

Tian

Refers to the idea or concept of heaven. Chinese emperor's rule under the mandate of tian, the idea that their rule is blessed from heaven (started under Zhou Dynasty). If a ruler cannot be just, he tempts heaven into withdrawing the mandate.

Western Zhou Dynasty

Period of Zhou rule characterized by the extensive use of feudalism, breaking the kingdom into 55 vassal states. It ended when an alliance of rebellious states and outside invaders destroyed the emperor's power.

Eastern Zhou Dynasty

Period where the Zhou emperor became a figurehead with primarily religious duties, and real power rested with the nobility. During its later years, unity vanished, and seven states emerged, leading to the Period of Warring States.

Period of Warring States

Describes three centuries when various rival Chinese states battled viciously for territorial advantage and dominance after the decline of the Zhou Dynasty. Despite warfare, it fostered significant developments in society, commerce, agriculture, philosophy (Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism), and the arts, laying foundations for Imperial China.

Qin Dynasty

Pronounced “chin," this dynasty united much of what is known as China today. Protected on one side by mountains, the Qin had a geographic advantage over rivals.

Qin Shi Huangdi (Ying Zheng)

The first true emperor of China, conquering neighbors and establishing the Qin Dynasty. He was a ruthless but strong leader who standardized coinage, language (introducing calligraphy), began the Great Wall (originally "Wall of 10,000 li"), and commissioned the Terracotta Army. He also introduced Legalism to China.

Chin Dynasty

The name from which China (the country) gets its name, referring to the Qin Dynasty.

Legalism (Qin Dynasty)

A philosophy introduced to China by Qin Shi Huangdi, based on Li Si's argument that humans are not inherently good but are weak and corruptible, thus requiring strict laws and punishments to force them to work for the common good. It dominated the Qin Dynasty's governing philosophy.

Standardized Coinage (Qin Dynasty)

One of the standardization efforts under Qin Shi Huangdi to unify China.

Calligraphy (Qin Dynasty)

A new, bolder form of writing, standardized under Ying Zheng/Qin Shi Huangdi, making Chinese writing clear, readable, and an art form recognized across China.

Great Wall of China (Qin Dynasty)

The first buildings were constructed under Qin Shi Huangdi to protect his territory from invaders. It was originally called the "Wall of 10,000 li" (li \approx 2/3 of a mile).

Terracotta Army

Thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi (first emperor of China), near Lishan. These figures provide unique insight into ancient Chinese warfare, including weapons, armor, chariot mechanics, and command structures.

Mausoleum at Mount Li

The grand burial site for Qin Shi Huangdi, constructed over 38 years, modeled on the Qin capital Xianyang, and housing the Terracotta Army.

Han Dynasty

Included the Western Han and Eastern/Later Han periods. It was founded by Liu Bang and under Han Wudi reached its apex of territorial power.

Liu Bang (Han Gaozu)

Began as a commoner, became a powerful general, defeated other Qin kingdoms, and reunited China to become the first emperor of the Han Dynasty. His legacy includes relative leniency, cutting public work expenditures, and rewarding loyalists and family with land, making China a confederation of kingdoms.

Empress Lu

Ruled as empress dowager by placing puppet infants (including her son Huidi) on the throne. She removed members of her late husband's family, replacing them with her own, and allegedly murdered potential threats. Despite ruthless methods, she offered the empire much-needed stability.

Han Wudi

Emperor under whom the Han reached the height of its power, expanding China to include modern China, N. Vietnam, and N. Korea. He forced landowners to divide land among all sons, established government monopolies, and sold government/military positions for money, which led to decline after his death.

Law of Land Division (Han Wudi)

Han Wudi's law forcing landowners to divide land among all sons. This fragmented family wealth, eventually leaving peasants with insufficient land.

Government Monopolies (Han Wudi)

Han Wudi's policy reflecting his bleak view of commercial trade, where the government controlled essential goods, which failed to realize the empire's economic potential.

Usurper

Someone who has no legitimate right to the throne.

Wang Mang

A usurper who proclaimed himself emperor, attempting contradictory reforms by lowering demands on the aristocracy while easing land restrictions and offering loans to peasants (following both Legalism and Confucianism). His policies satisfied neither and, combined with famine and natural disasters, led to his downfall by the Red Eyebrow rebellion.

Red Eyebrows

A major peasant rebellion against Wang Mang, named because the rebels painted their eyebrows red. This movement contributed to Wang Mang's downfall.

Eastern/Later Han Dynasty

A newer, but different version of the old Han Dynasty, characterized by a long succession of minor and ineffective rulers. Much of the power rested in the hands of court advisors, many of whom were eunuchs.

Eunuchs (Eastern Han)

Castrated men serving as court advisors in the Eastern Han Dynasty. They were believed to be less corrupt since they could not father children and show favoritism.

China's Varied Geography

Includes highlands of the Tibetan Plateau, deserts in the north, rainforest in the south, and the sea on the east. A porous northern border facilitated migration/invasion by nomadic tribes. Two major rivers are the Yellow and the Yangzi.

Erlitou Site

An archaeological site in Henan Province believed to have been a Xia capital, providing evidence for the Xia dynasty's existence with findings like pottery, ornamental jade, clay irrigation pipes, and ritual bronze vessels.

Wang (Shang Title)

The title used for the king during the late Shang period.

Shang Sacrificial Victims Demographics

Xunzang victims (personal slaves/house servants) were typically a mix of male and female. Renji victims (prisoners of war/field slaves) were predominantly male and captured from outside Shang domain.

Ying Zheng

The original name of Qin Shi Huangdi before he became the first emperor of a unified China.

Han Gaozu

The ruling name of Liu Bang, founder of the Han Dynasty.

Huidi

Son of Emperor Liu Bang and Empress Lu, who inherited the throne with his mother's assistance in governance.

Silk Road (Han Dynasty)

Under the Han Dynasty, China took control of this valuable trade route through Central Asia, Northern China, and the Mediterranean. It was named after silk, a primary export, and provided China with additional wealth and political power.

Wang Mang's Downfall

Wang Mang's downfall stemmed from contradictory policies that satisfied neither rich nor poor. This, combined with famine and natural disasters, led to the Red Eyebrow rebellion and his loss of the Mandate of Heaven.

Yellow Turban Rebellion

A failed peasant rebellion against the Eastern/Later Han Dynasty, driven by exploitation of a labor surplus (due to Yellow River floods displacing farmers) and widespread disease outbreaks (possibly the Antonine Plague). Its suppression by Cao Cao led to increased political power for regional generals.

Antonine Plague (Possible Han Influence)

A potential cause of disease outbreaks during the Eastern Han decline (smallpox or measles), theorized to have spread along the Silk Road, contributing to unrest that fueled the Yellow Turban Rebellion.

Cao Cao

A poet-warrior who ruthlessly crushed the Yellow Turban Rebellion. He wielded significant power after a court advisor persuaded the emperor to grant regional military governors autonomy.

Liu Yan (Eastern Han Influence)

A court advisor who persuaded Emperor Lingdi to grant regional military governors complete autonomy. This decentralized power, contributing to the Han Dynasty's decline.

Three Kingdoms Period

The period that followed the overthrow of the Eastern/Later Han Dynasty by three of its generals.

Cai Lun

Credited with the invention of paper during the Han Dynasty.

Chinese Civil Service Examination System

Introduced by Emperor Wen of Han for recruitment to the civil service through examinations, a lasting legacy of the Han Dynasty.

Emperor Wen of Han

Introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations.

Han Chinese

The identity that most modern Chinese people consider themselves, representing a significant lasting legacy of the Han Dynasty.

Daoism (Taoism)

A philosophy where "Dao" (the way) represents nature and a divine order. It values natural things, disdains human societal constructs, and emphasizes 'wuwei' (inaction) to become one with the Dao. Its founder, Lao Zi, authored the influential text 'Dao De Jing'.

Dao/Tao

In Daoism, it means "the way," referring to nature and a divinely established order for things.

Wuwei

Means "inaction" in Daoism; the way to become one with the Dao (nature).

Lao Zi

The most important Daoist philosopher, author of the influential text "Dao De Jing" (or "Laozi," translated as "Book of Reason and Virtue").

Dao De Jing (Laozi)

The influential text written by Lao Zi, outlining the philosophy of Daoism (translated as "Book of Reason and Virtue").

Confucianism

A philosophy founded by Confucius that infused ethical principles into government, viewing human society as a reflection of heaven's intended social order. It encourages responsible behavior, service to the ruler, and filial piety. It appealed to the ruling class.

Confucius

A government official and philosopher who produced texts on proper governance, becoming the basis for Confucianism. He believed in ethical principles in government and respecting social order.

Filial Piety

An attitude of respect for parents and ancestors in societies influenced by Confucian thought, demonstrated partly through service to one's parents.

The Analects

The collected teachings of Confucius, compiled by his followers after his death.

Mencius

A Confucian philosopher living a generation after Confucius, who added a greater emphasis on the natural goodness of human beings. He believed rulers must behave positively for their subjects, or risk being removed by the heavens, thus placing a condition of responsibility on government.

Legalism

A philosophy from Li Si who argued humans are not inherently good but are weak and corruptible, thus requiring strict laws and strict punishments to force them to work for the common good. It dominated the Qin Dynasty's governing philosophy along with meritocracy.

Li Si

The philosopher who argued humans are not inherently good but are weak and corruptible, forming the basis of Legalism.

Meritocracy (Legalism)

The idea, related to Legalism, that people advance based on merit rather than by personal connections or family relations.

Sui Dynasty

A short-lived dynasty known for figures like Sui Yangdi and the construction of the Grand Canal.

Sui Yangdi

The most prominent emperor of the short-lived Sui Dynasty, considered a tyrant who murdered family members to take power. His major achievement was building the Grand Canal, but his failed attempt to conquer Korea led to his downfall, typical of Medieval Chinese emperors.

Grand Canal

Sui Yangdi's major achievement, connecting China's two dominant rivers (Yellow and Yangtze) to improve communication, trade, transport, and possibly military movement. It is the world's largest artificial waterway.

Medieval Era (Far East Culture)

A period when most of the Far East (e.g., Japan) adopted aspects of Chinese culture, such as Chinese writing, Buddhism, and Confucianism.

Shotoku Taishi

A Japanese regent in the Medieval Era, he drafted Japan's first constitution based on Confucian principles and imported Chinese ideas. He also understood Buddhist doctrines and fostered the construction of early great temples like Hōryūji.

Hōryūji and Shitennōji

Early great temples in Japan credited to Shotoku Taishi's patronage, reflecting the adoption of Buddhism during the Medieval Era.

Kami

Native Japanese cults that Shotoku Taishi helped distinguish from basic Buddhist doctrines.

Tang Dynasty

The second Medieval Chinese Dynasty, noted for its ongoing struggle against northern "barbarians" (most notably Turks), significant reforms, religious tolerance, and prosperity under rulers like Tang Taizong. It spanned from its beginnings to its end in the 900s.

Tang Taizong

The second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, considered one of China's greatest rulers for his reforms of government and laws, religious tolerance (allowing Christian missionary Alopen and Zoroastrian groups), and expansion of China's influence. He accepted criticism from advisors like Wei Zheng, despite his ruthless rise to power. Killed his father and brothers for power.

Alopen

A Christian missionary allowed by Tang Taizong to preach his religion in China and introduce Christian concepts to the country.

Wei Zheng

Tang Taizong's chancellor, who pointed out over 200 mistakes the emperor had made, demonstrating Taizong's openness to advice and criticism.

Wu Zetian

Began as a concubine of Tang Taizong, married his son Gaozong and became empress consort. She later ruled as empress dowager and then as the first and only empress of China. She favored Buddhism and was one of China's most effective and controversial monarchs, known for shrewdly maintaining power and promoting family members.

Gaozong

The son of Tang Taizong and husband of Wu Zetian, during whose reign Wu Zetian was the real power behind the emperor.

Tang Xuanzong

Grandson of Wu Zetian, under whom the Tang Dynasty began its golden age, making improvements in law, economy, and military. However, his later neglect of duties for Lady Yang Guifei and reliance on corrupt officials like Li-Linfu marked the beginning of the dynasty's end, earning him the title "brilliant emperor" more for his advisors' successes than his own.

Lady Wu Hui-fei

Consort of Tang Xuanzong who suggested he elevate a close friend, Li-Linfu, to a prominent position, contributing to the rise of corrupt governance.

Li-Linfu

A corrupt and power-hungry chancellor elevated by Tang Xuanzong, who schemed to seize power while the emperor was distracted. His influence contributed to the unraveling of the Tang Dynasty.

Yang Guifei

A woman whom Tang Xuanzong fell in love with, leading him to neglect his duties as emperor. Her influence resulted in the promotion of her unqualified family members to important positions, contributing to the Tang Dynasty's decline.

Song Dynasty

Dominated by the Confucian bureaucracy and the rise of Neo-Confucianism (led by Zhu Xi). Commerce flourished despite Confucian views of trade. This period saw significant transformation and invention, including movable type and advanced rice cultivation.