CHINA
Xia dynasty = Bronze Age dynasty considered the first Chinese dynasty. However, few reliable sources exist to confirm facts or significance related to the Xia.
Shang Dynasty = often considered the
historical beginning of China as we do have
reliable archaeological and historical sources
to confirm their existence. Also existed during
the Bronze Age. Had walled cities, palaces, and burial tombs.m Had a king who was also the high priest- theocracy. They had a God, originally called Di, later referred to as Shangdi. God talked to the king, the king talked to the people-divine right. Patriarchal system, when the king died his son would be king, or brother if he didn’t have a son; always males. They worshiped their ancestors and believed old people to be important to them. Two forms of human sacrifice- servants were buried with masters(sometimes alive), other form was to appease the God Di, to end droughts or famines. Once they beheaded 9000 enemy soldiers as a tribute to Di.
Shang are the first people to introduce chinese writing
Oracle Bones- turtles shells, or the bone of a cow. Example of writing
Concept of Yin Yang- symbol of typical lives; day and night
all about balance
The bottom of the Shang social class were fieldworkers and peasants
Fu Hao is married to the king and was his number one advisor and general as a women
Fu Hao’s tomb is the best preserved of all the tombs kinda like tut. Full of military articles and artifacts and jewelry etc..
Zhou Dynasty = longest lasting chinese dynasty, gave us the mandate of heaven and the dynastic cycle, introduce feudalism, they only had 34 rulers during over 800 years they had stability(for example rome had over 50 emperors in 200 years) introduced coinage.
Song- period of peak confucianism
time of education and knowledge expansion
neo confucianism period started by ju ji
early version of ceramic movable type printing press made by bi sheng
pulling out a new strain of rice
Wang Anshi
MINI ESSAY QUESTION ON THE QUIZ!!!!!
THE CHINESE DYNASTIC CYCLE
STEP 1: The New Dynasty restores peace. Land is redistributed to the peasants. They appoint loyal officers and officials. They also repair defensive walls, build roads, canals, and irrigation projects. During this tie the people are generally happy, and so this period is sometimes referred to as a “honeymoon period”. After several generations the New Dynasty becomes an aging dynasty.
STEP 2: The Aging Dynasty has the following characteristics: corrupt officials, losing control of the provinces, imposing a heavy tax burden on the peasants, and allowing the defensive walls to decay. Eventually the Aging Dynasty loses the Mandate of Heaven.
STEP 3: Problems symbolic of the lost Mandate of Heaven include: peasant rebellions, floods, famine, earthquake, armed bandits in the provinces, and foreign invasions. As a result of these problems, a New Dynasty then claims the Mandate of Heaven and the cycle starts again.
The Mandate of Heaven is the Chinese belief that the heavens “bless” the rule of the emperor. If the emperor is corrupt, brutal, cruel to the people, or just a bad person in general, he runs the risk of losing the Mandate of Heaven. Signs that the emperor has lost the Mandate of Heaven are natural disasters such as floods, fires, famines, earthquakes, etc. Peasant rebellions and outside invasions are also signs of loss of the Mandate of Heaven. When it is clear that the dynasty/emperor has lost the Mandate of Heaven, the ancient Chinese believed that they have the right to revolt and rebel against the emperor. The Mandate of Heaven is similar to the European concept of Divine Right, which states that God put the king and his family on the throne. The difference between the two is that the Chinese believed that the people have the right to revolt and rebel, but in Europe there was nothing the ruler could do that would allow the people to revolt and rebel. In Europe to go against the king was not only a crime, treason, but also a sin because they were going against God.
9 IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT Qin Shi Huang
First Emperor of China
Where China gets its name from (Chin Dynasty)
Introduced Legalism to China
Codify/Simplifying coinage
New form of writing called Calligraphy- its bolder and everyone has to use it
Standardized/simplified the language
First buildings of the Great Wall- The great wall of China was originally called the wall of 10000 li(a measurement roughly 2/3rds)
Terracotta warriors
Han Dynasty
Luibang
Empress Lu
Han Wudi
Apex of Han Dynasty-most territory china ever had
Passed a law that all sons get a portion of their fathers land-this is negative land got divided way too much
Did not like foreign trade- government monopolies
Sold government and military positions for money
Usurper- Someone who has no right to the throne
Wang Mang
Red Eybrows
DECLINE OF THE EASTERN HAN
The Eastern/Later Han is a newer, but different
version of the old Han Dynasty. The Eastern/Later
Han had a long succession of minor and ineffective
rulers. Much of the power of the government
rested in the hands of the court (or advisors), many
of whom were eunuchs (castrated men) who were
believed to be less corrupt because they could not
father children (and thus show favoritism to them).
QUIZ HINTS
50 pts
12 questions
10-points dynastic cycle mini essay
know the 3 steps + description of mandate of heaven
15 points-Really big matching of all of the emperors and empresses and inventors(not philosophers)
fu hao
kai lun
tai zong
chin chi wun dai
much more
some may be used twice some not used at all
8 points- Philosophies of the people, basic understanding
Confucius
Mencius
and Lao zi
3 more short answer questions
Xia dynasty, Shang dynasty, and Cho dynasty(how did feudalism go wrong)
accomplishments, what are the famous for what they did, shang is longg
rest are multiple choice chin through song dynasty
no definitions
Lecture Notes
China Lecture Notes
China has varied geography, including the highlands of the Tibetan Plateau, deserts in the
north, rainforest in the south, and the sea on the east. The northern border is porous,
meaning nomadic tribes can migrate or invade relatively easily. There are two major
rivers, the Yellow and the Yangzi.
DYNASTIC BEGINNINGS:
XIA DYNASTY (2205 – 1766 BC) = Bronze Age dynasty considered the first Chinese
dynasty. However, few reliable sources exist to confirm facts or significance related to
the Xia. For a long time it was thought the Xia dynasty was completely legendary but in
the last couple of decades evidence has surfaced that it really existed. A site near Erlitou
in Henan Province dated to 2200 to 1700 B.C. is believed to have been a Xia capital.
Archaeologists working there have found tombs filled with pottery, ornamental jade, clay
irrigation pipes, and the world's oldest ritual bronze vessels.
SHANG DYNASTY (1766 – 1122 BC) = Often considered the historical beginning of
China as we do have reliable archaeological and historical sources to confirm their
existence. Also existed during the Bronze Age.
Shang dynasty cities have walls, palaces, and royal tombs. The Shang dynasty was a
hereditary monarchy headed by a king; during the late Shang period the king was known
by the title wang. The government was a form of theocracy in which the king’s chief role
was religious. The Shang king was, first and foremost, a mediator between the physical
world and the divine. The Shang worshipped the high god Di, and the king was believed
to be the person who could best communicate with the god via his royal ancestors.
Succession to the kingship passed through the male line, typically from father to son and
from elder brother to younger brother. Servants were buried with royals, similar to what
we have seen in other civilizations in other places during the Bronze Age. See below.
Shang religion: The religion practiced by the Shang ruling class is distinctly
monotheistic in character, of which the Shang-Di (lit. “lord above) is recognized as the
one and only divine Lord (Di). Shang political theology frames Shang-Di as an
incorporeal, omnipresent, and omnipotent metaphysical deity whom wields absolute
power over all human, natural and spiritual forces. Shang religious practices emphasize
worship of ancestors more so than other contemporary cultures. While the Shang people
viewed the spiritual domain (e.g. spirit of dead ancestors) is simply an extension of the
human world and can be readily accessed, the divine will of Shang-Di is radically
inaccessible except through the divination of the Shang king.
Oracle bones: Oracle bone script is the earliest known Chinese writing system; it is,
nonetheless, a highly developed iconographic form of writing that resemble
contemporary Chinese characters, and written in a grammar consistent with classical
written Chinese. These writings were used specifically during state divination
ceremonies where the Shang ruler both acting as a king and as a high priest, would carve
scripts concerning matters of state importance (such as military affairs, prayers for
bountiful harvest, and matters concerning sacrificial offerings) onto specially prepared
tortoise carapaces and cow bones. The Shang king would then prod the oracle bones with
a red-hot bronze rod, which would cause the bones to crack under the intense heat,
indicating that the singular supreme deity of the Shang people, Shang-Di (上帝, lit.: “the
lord from above”) had answered the questions inscribed on the bones, and the cracks left
on the bones were supposedly Shang-Di’s divine answers. Only the Shang king could
interpret these and announce them to his people as divine mandates. Oracle bones provide
examples of early Chinese writing. Circa 1200 BC.
A sizable portion of the oracle bones uncovered in Shang archaeological sites contain
script specifically concerning human sacrifice. These written records are also
corroborated by the discovery of numerous sacrificial mass-graves in those sites. In most
Shang sacrificial rituals, only animals and valuable chattels (such as bronze wares) would
be used as offerings. There were only two exceptional circumstances where human
sacrifices were made: xunzang 殉葬 and renji 人祭. Xunzang 殉葬 (lit. “burial
sacrifice”) refers to the practice in which personal slaves and servants of Shang king,
upon their master’s death, were expected to commit ritual suicide or to “volunteer”
themselves to be buried alive alongside with their master. While the practice of
committing ritual suicide upon the master’s death has lingered throughout Chinese
history, the second type of human sacrifice, renji 人祭 (lit. “human offering sacrifice) is
practiced only during the Shang dynasty period, and also the most massive in scale in
terms of number of people killed in a typical renji ceremony. The demographic pattern of
Shang sacrificial victims is also quite interesting. Xunzang victims (or “volunteers”) were
mostly personal slaves (i.e. house servants), and therefore in xunzang burial sites we
could find a pretty even mix of male and female human remains. Renji victims, on the
other hand, appears to be predominately male. Unlike xunzang, the people sacrificed for
Renji were not personal slaves, but mostly prisoners of war and field slaves (keep in mind
that Shang field slaves were typically captured from distant lands outside of Shang
domain).
Specifically, renji functions as prayers to Shang-Di to deliver the Shang people from
famine. This kind of sacrifice would only take place during periods of severe food
shortage (usually due to drought or war). Hundreds of captured slaves were typically
executed during a renji ceremony, usually via decapitation (see figure 3). The corpses of
the victims, along with their severed heads, were buried in mass sacrificial pits or
collectively incinerated, in order to placate what they thought was an angry Shang-Di.
The largest recorded human sacrifice of this kind was done by Shang king Wuding, where
over 9,000 slaves were slaughtered as offerings to Shang-Di.
Yinyang: The earliest Chinese characters for yin and yang are found in inscriptions made
on “oracle bones” (skeletal remains of various animals used in ancient Chinese divination
practices at least as early as the 14th century B.C.E.). In these
inscriptions, yin and yang simply are descriptions of natural phenomena such as weather
conditions, especially the movement of the sun. There is sunlight during the day (yang)
and a lack of sunlight at night (yin). According to the earliest comprehensive dictionary
of Chinese characters (ca. 100 CE), yin refers to “a closed door, darkness and the south
bank of a river and the north side of a mountain.” Yang refers to “height, brightness and
the south side of a mountain.” These meanings of yin and yang originated in the daily life
experience of the early Chinese. Peasants depended on sunlight for lighting and their
daily life routines. When the sun came out, they would go to the field to work; when the
sun went down, they would return home to rest. The concept that life has two polar
opposites that balance the universe, the balance between light and dark, good and evil,
male and female, etc.
Shang society: Shang Dynasty were classified into four social classes: the king and
aristocracy, the military, artisans and craftsmen, and peasants. Members of the
aristocracy were the most respected social class, and were responsible for governing
smaller areas of the dynasty. Next in social status were the Shang military—both the
infantry and the chariot warriors. The Shang “middle class” were artisans and
craftsmen, who mainly worked with bronze. The poorest class in Shang society were
the peasants, who were mostly farmers. Some scholars believe they functioned as
slaves; others believe they were more like serfs.
Shang individuals: Fu Hao was one of the consorts of Wu Ding, the Shang king under
whom Shang power reached its zenith. Fu Hao’s tomb was discovered in 1976 near
Anyang. It is one of the best preserved tombs from that era. Archaeologists easily
identified it as the tomb of Fu Hao. Her name had been long known from Shang period
oracle texts and they found her name inscribed on the ritual bronzes on the tomb.
Most of the information we have about Fu Hao comes from oracle bone inscriptions.
Many of the oracle bones show concerns for her well-being, for example childbirth and
illness. Inscriptions on the oracle bones also show that Fu Hao was involved in two
aspects of royal life that were normally not open to women. She led numerous military
campaigns against the neighboring Tu, Ba, Yi and Qiang tribes. One oracle bone, for
example, asks whether Fu Hao should gather soldiers before an attack.
Fu Hao’s tomb has yielded over a hundred weapons, and it shows her status as a military
leader. In all there were around 2000 items buried with Fu Hao. Among these there are
468 bronzes, 750 jades, 560 of bone and over 110 of stone and semi-precious stone. Over
six thousand cowrie shells were buried with her also – these would have served as
currency in the Shang period.
ZHOU (1046 to 256 BC): It is the longest ruling Chinese dynasty. The Zhou ruled for
867 years but had only 34 rulers! The Zhou king was referred to as the “Son of Heaven”
and he had both religious and political functions.
The Zhou Dynasty is a powerful one, but the emperors grant a lot of their land to royal
princes (feudalism). Over time, the princes who govern this land begin to become
independent and consider the land theirs, not gifts from the emperors. Much of the
dynasty’s resources thus rest outside the direct control of the emperor, weakening his
power. The later years of the Zhou dynasty (ending in 256 BC) see the princes officially
assert their independence. A period of inner conflict and warring states follows.
Tian = refers to the idea or concept of heaven. Chinese emperor’s rule under the
mandate of tian, the idea that their rule is blessed from heaven (started under Zhou
Dynasty). The Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. Thus, if a ruler
cannot be just with his subjects, he tempts heaven into withdrawing the mandate. Natural
disasters and uprisings are seen as proof of these developments.
Western Zhou: (1122 – 771 BC): Rule is done by the extensive use of feudalism. (See
above) The kingdom was broken into 55 vassal states. In 771 BC, an alliance of
rebellious states and outside invaders ends the Western Zhou period and destroys the
power of the emperor.
Eastern Zhou: (771 to 256 BC): The emperor is now a figurehead with primarily
religious duties. Real power rests with the nobility. During the last 250 years all unity
vanishes, and 7 states emerge. This is time is also referred to as the Period of Warring
States. See below.
PERIOD OF WARRING STATES (c. 471 to 221 BC): Describes the three centuries
when various rival Chinese states battled viciously for territorial advantage and
dominance. Besides incessant warfare, and probably because of it, the period saw
significant developments in society, commerce, agriculture, philosophy, and the arts,
setting the foundations for the subsequent flourishing of Imperial China. Many of China’s
great thinkers lived during this period. New ideas of all kinds emerged, including the
schools of Confucianism (emphasizing social and family structure), Daoism (following
the patterns of nature), and legalism (promoting systematic rewards and punishments).
They addressed the most important question of the time: how to create a stable and
harmonious society. These competing philosophies and systems of thought continued to
influence Chinese beliefs in later eras, and many of them are still in active use today.
Ultimately the Qin state was victorious and established the first unified Chinese state.
QIN DYNASTY (221 – 207 BC):
Qin = pronounced “chin.” Qin dynasty united much of what we know as China today.
This map (see map on powerpoint) shows some of the new kingdoms emerging after the
decline of the Zhou. On the western edge is the Qin. Protected on one side by
mountains, the Qin only have potential rivals for power in one geographic direction
which will ultimately give them an advantage.
Qin Shi Huangdi: Ying Zheng is the first true emperor of China. As an ambitious young
man, Ying Zheng conquered his neighbors and established the Qin Dynasty. By 221 BC,
he is the only king in China. Because of his power, the title of wang (king) no longer
adequately described him; the new title of huangdi (or emperor) is thus bestowed upon
him. From this point, Ying Zheng is known by the more formal ruling name of Qin Shi
Huangdi. Under the Qin Dynasty, we see the first example of a unified China. We also
see expansion outside of the traditional boundaries controlled by earlier dynasties.
His legacy is that of a ruthless but strong leader who standardized coinage, language, and
began construction of the Great Wall of China (to protect his territory from invaders).
Prior to the Qin Dynasty and the rule of Ying Zheng/Qin Shi Huangdi, little of Chinese
writing was standardized. Under Ying Zheng/Qin Shi Huangdi, Chinese writing was
standardized into clear and readable characters that people in all corners of China
recognized. Calligraphy, the skill of writing in this new standardized form, becomes an
art form.
The Terracotta Army: The Terracotta Army refers to the thousands of life-size clay
models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand
mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty,
located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The site was discovered in 1974
CE, and the realistic army figures provide a unique insight into ancient Chinese
warfare from weapons to armor or chariot mechanics to command structures.
The mausoleum at Mount Li, was constructed over 38 years, from 246 to 208 BC, and
is situated underneath a 76-meter-tall tomb mound shaped like a truncated pyramid. The
layout of the mausoleum is modeled on the Qin capital Xianyang,
HAN DYNASTY: Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)
LIU BANG: Liu Bang (also known by his ruling name of Han Gaozu) began life as a
commoner, worked his way up through the military, and became a powerful general. In
202 BC, he defeated the other former kingdoms of the Qin Dynasty, reuniting China and
becoming the first emperor of the Han Dynasty.
China becomes more of a confederation of individual kingdoms than a traditional empire.
Liu Bang/Han Gaouzu rewards family members and loyal advisors with land in
some of these other kingdoms. His legacy includes relative leniency to those he rules,
inspiring less opposition to his leadership, and cutting expenditures on public works
(requiring less money from his subjects).
Empress Lu r. 188 to 180 BC. Empress Lü ruled from 188 – 180 B.C.E.
When Emperor Liu Bang died he left the throne to his son Huidi. There was much
objection to this but Liu Bang’s justification for having the son of Empress Lü receive the
throne was that Huidi would have Empress Lü to assist him in important decisions of
rulership. Although Huidi was officially the emperor, Empress Lü was the backbone
behind the ruling of the Han Dynasty. Huidi died in 188 B.C. and Empress Lü placed an
infant on the throne that died shortly after. He was quickly replaced with another infant.
Through the use of puppet emperors, Empress Lü was able to rule the Han Dynasty on
her own without being overthrown by her rivals. After she had established power, she
began removing members from her late husband’s family from office and began replacing
them with her own family members. Throughout her rule there were families who had
just as much or more of a right to have their children on the throne. Empress Lü is said to
have murdered all the princes who were a potential threat to her rule. She probably is
responsible for the death of four princes and may have killed several others including her
husband’s son from another wife. It is hard to figure out exactly how many people she
killed but it seems that anytime a person could potentially threaten her rule, no matter if
in was an infant or a pregnant soon to be mother, they would end up dead. Although she
was ruthless in her ways of maintaining power and she was not an actual heir of the Han
dynasty, she offered the empire much needed stability under her rule. She died in 180
B.C. Upon her death two Han officials appointed an emperor to the throne who was more
closely related to the Han founder's Liu - clan. They removed all of Empress Lü’s family
members form their positions of power, some of them by force and some of them by
assassination.
HAN WUDI: Under Han Wudi the Han will reach the height of their power. He is
known for the expansion of China to include all of modern China, N. Vietnam, and N.
Korea. Han power will extend farther from its capital than Roman power! Han Wudi
forced landowners to divide their lands upon their death among all of their son’s,
not just will land to the oldest or preferred son. As a result, family wealth was more
difficult to preserve. The law also had a disastrous effect on peasants; after a few
generations, peasants did not have enough land to feed their families. Han Wudi
took a bleak view of commercial trade; he wanted government monopolies. As a
result, his government never lived up to its economic potential. In order to raise
money, he sells positions in the government and military; this is opposite of the
philosophy of meritocracy. After his death, the Han Dynasty goes into decline.
SILK ROAD: Under the Han Dynasty, China takes control of the Silk Road. The Silk
Road (so named from the valuable silk exports coming out of China) is a valuable trade
route through Central Asia, Northern China, and the Mediterranean. Control of the
road gives China additional wealth and political power.
END OF WESTERN HAN DYNASTY: Wang Mang proclaims himself as an emperor
in 9 AD. He tries to address the discontent of the aristocracy by lowering
government demands on them while also trying to help peasants by easing land
restrictions and offering loans. Wang Mang was a follower of both legalism
and Confucianism philosophies. These policies are contradictory, and he
ultimately satisfies neither the rich nor the poor. Famine and natural disasters
follow, interpreted by some as an indication that he does not have the Mandate of
Heaven. The Red Eyebrow rebellion is an attempt by desperate and essentially
conservative peasants to reverse some of Wang’s riskier reforms, and one of the
two major peasant rebellion movements against Wang Mang. It was so named
because the rebels painted their eyebrows red and led to Wang Mang’s downfall.
EASTERN (Later) 9 AD – 220 AD
Decline of the Han: The Eastern/Later Han is a newer, but different version of the old
Han Dynasty. The Eastern/Later Han had a long succession of minor and ineffective
rulers. Much of the power of the government rested in the hands of the court (or
advisors), many of whom were eunuchs (castrated men) who were believed to be less
corrupt because they could not father children (and thus show favoritism to them).
YELLOW TURBAN REBELLION: The Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans was a failed
rebellion against the leadership of the Eastern/Later Han Dynasty, resulting in more
political power in the hands of the generals. As flooding along the Yellow River forced
farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation. Disease
outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 CE, with the potential cause
theorized as the Antonine Plague of 165 to 180CE of smallpox or measles spreading
along the Silk Road. The rebellion was finally ruthlessly crushed by the poet-warrior Cao
Cao (l. 155-220 CE) within a year and Zhang Jue died with it. One of the reasons Cao
Cao was able to wield the power he did was that a court advisor and general, Liu Yan (d.
194 CE), had persuaded Emperor Lingdi that he should relinquish control of military
governors and their provinces and allow each to act according to their own set of
circumstances. Since the rebellion was so widespread and seemed to take so many
different forms of resistance, the choices of each individual regional commander would
be more effective than a blanket imperial dictate. This move would essentially grant
regional governors/commanders more or less complete autonomy from the emperor but,
even so, Lingdi agreed to the plan. It is ultimately 3 generals of the Eastern/Later Han
who overthrow the dynasty, leading to the Three Kingdoms period.
The Han Dynasty leaves several lasting legacies including the invention of paper in
100 AD by Cai Lun and the beginning of the Chinese civil service examination
system. In 165 BC Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service
through examinations. Perhaps the most significant Han Dynasty legacy, is that
modern China still identifies itself with its Han past. Most Chinese people today
consider themselves Han Chinese.
PHILOSOPHIES OF ANCIENT CHINA:
DAOISM: Daoism = Dao or Tao means “the way.” In Daoism (sometimes referred to
as Taoism), “the way” is nature, a divinely established order for things. The Dao is the
way of nature. Things that are not natural are not worthwhile. Human society aspects
such as kings, lords, armies, taxes, etc., are not worth honoring. The way to become one
with the Dao was through wuwei which means “inaction”. Because of this emphasis, the
philosophy/religious tradition of Daoism originally appeals more to lower social classes
rather than the aristocracy. The most important Daoist philosopher is Lao Zi, who wrote
the influential text the Dao Da Jing or Laozi. Translation is Book of Reason and Virtue.
CONFUCIANISM: Confucius lived 5th to 6th century BC. A government official in one of the royal courts, he produced texts on the proper method of governing which became the basis for Confucianism. He will introduce ethical principles into government. Confucius believed in a Dao of sorts, but not as a way of nature. Confucius believed that human society is a reflection of the intended order of heaven itself. Respecting the social order in encouraged, thus Confucianism encourages behaving in responsible ways, service to the ruler, and filial piety. Filial piety is an attitude of respect for parents and ancestors in societies influenced by Confucian thought. Filial piety is demonstrated, in part, through service to one's parents. Confucianism appeals to the ruling class. After Confucius died his followers collected his teachings into a writing called the Analects.
MENCIUS: Living a generation after Confucius, Mencius follows Confucianism but
adds other elements. These elements include a greater emphasis on the natural goodness
of human beings. Extended to governing, this means Mencius expects rulers to behave in
positive ways for his subjects, or else the leader will be removed by the heavens. This
idea places a condition of responsibility on government.
LEGALISM: Legalism was philosophy from Li Si who argued humans are not
inherently good but are weak and corruptible. As a result, humans must be forced by
strict laws and strict punishments to work for the common good. A related development
is meritocracy, the idea that people advance based on merit rather than by personal
connections or family relations. Legalism and meritocracy dominate the governing
philosophy under the Qin Dynasty.
SUI DYNASTY: Sui Yangdi is the most prominent emperor of the short-lived Sui
Dynasty. Considered a tyrant, he murdered his father & several brothers to take power.
His major achievement is building the Grand Canal that connects the two dominant rivers
of China (Yellow and Yangtze). This improved communication within the realm, but
some historians feel the main purpose of the canal may have been to move the military.
Since its completion as the world's largest artificial waterway, it has been used for trade,
transport, and communication. Sui Yangdi also tried to conquer Korea (Korea was
receptive to Chinese culture but not Chinese rule). The attempt fails, resulting in a more
unified Korea and the loss of Sui Yangdi’s power. His short, brutish, reign is typical of
Medieval Chinese emperors.
MEDIEVAL ERA: Most of the Far East adopts aspects of Chinese culture during the
Medieval Era, such as Chinese writing, Buddhism, and Confucianism. An example is
Shotoku Taishi (taishi roughly translates to “prince”) in Japan, while ruling as regent fro
his aunt after the death of his father. He prepared Japan's first real constitution in
seventeen articles based on Confucian principles. He proved an enlightened ruler and is
sometimes credited with drafting and importing many ideas from China such as city
planning and political arts. In addition, Japanese royal residences and city plans were
copies of Chinese capitals. In terms of Buddhist history in Japan, Shōtoku is regarded as
the first Japanese aristocrat to understand basic Buddhist doctrines and to distinguish it
clearly from native Japanese cults of kami. He is also credited with building many of the
early great temples in Japan, such as the Hōryūji and the Shitennōji. Whether or not he
was personally responsible for their construction, he certainly provided the patronage and
helped create an atmosphere conducive to such building projects.
MEDIEVAL ERA: TANG DYNASTY (618 – 907 AD)
The 2nd Medieval Chinese Dynasty is the Tang. Their rule is noted for the ongoing
struggle against northern “barbarians,” most notably Turks, who regularly raided Chinese
territory. Tang Taizong was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty and is considered
one of the greatest rulers in Chinese history for his reforms of the government and the
laws, his religious tolerance, and the prosperity China enjoyed under his reign. As an
active military leader, Tang Taizong’s military efforts were instrumental in placing his
father on the throne as the first Tang emperor. Tang Taizong later forced his father to
cede power to him and ordered the death of some of his brothers to prevent rival claims
to the throne. After defeating the raiding Turks, he expanded China’s influence. In
addition, he is noted for his diplomatic rule, tolerance for foreign traders, and acceptance
of multiple religions. His accomplishments are why his actions to become emperor are
overlooked. Religious tolerance and diversity in China flourished under Taizong's
reign. Buddhism became widely practiced, surpassing Confucianism and curbing the
popularity of Taoism. Taizong allowed the Christian missionary Alopen to preach
his religion in China in 635 CE, introducing Christian concepts to the country and in 638
CE a Persian mission was allowed to establish Zoroastrian groups. In the same way that
he welcomed all different faiths, he embraced diverse ethnicities and elevated people of
different ethnic groups to positions at the imperial court. He was open to advice and
listened carefully to the wisdom of his counselors. When his chancellor, Wei Zheng,
pointed out over 200 mistakes the emperor had made thus far in his reign, Taizong
accepted the criticism and corrected them. When he was told a military expedition would
be too costly for the people, he abandoned it.
MORE TANG DYNASTY: Wu Zetian became a concubine of 2nd emperor of Tang
Dynasty (Tang Taizong) at age 14. Her role in his house was as a laundress. After
his death, she married his son, Gaozong (r. 649-683 CE) and became empress consort but
actually was the power behind the emperor. When Gaozong died in 683 CE, Wu took
control of the government as empress dowager, placing two of her sons on the throne and
removing them almost as quickly. She was the power behind the throne from Gaozong's
death in 683 CE until she proclaimed herself openly in 690 CE and ruled as the first and
only empress of China until a year before her death in 705 CE, at the age of 81. She was
one of the most effective and controversial monarchs in China's history. As a leader, she
favors Buddhism over other religions.
Tang Xuanzong (r. 712-756 CE). He was the grandson of Wu Zetian. Under
Xuanzong's reign the Tang Dynasty began its golden age. Xuanzong abolished the
death penalty, improved the economy through security on the Silk Road, increased
maritme trading, decreed financial reforms, constructed temples and administrative
complexes, built roads, and improved industry. He reorganized the military so that
farmers were no longer conscripted against their will and built a professional army
of veterans who were more effective in guarding the borders and reclaiming land
from nomadic tribes. Xuanzong started to grow tired of public life c. 734 CE and began
depending more on the advice of his consort, Lady Wu Hui-fei, who suggested he elevate
a close friend of her family, Li-Linfu, to a more prominent position in order to take on
some of the burden of rule. Li-Linfu was made chancellor, and since he was a close
friend of the family, Xuanzong felt he could trust him, but he was wrong. Li-Linfu was a
corrupt and power-hungry man who only cared about advancing himself. While he played
the part of the devoted servant of the emperor, he schemed to seize power himself and
depose Xuanzong. The emperor suspected nothing and placed great trust in Li-Linfu. In
737 CE Consort Wu died, and Xuanzong withdrew further into his own pleasures and left
the business of government to Li-Linfu. In 741 CE, Xuanzong fell in love with a woman
named Yang Guifei who was married to one of his sons. Yang left her husband and
moved into the imperial palace with Xuanzong. He neglected his duties as emperor for
this love affair and agreed to anything Lady Yang asked. She began with small requests
which he granted, and these grew into larger demands until she got him to promote
members of her family to important positions even though these people could not do the
jobs. All the important reforms and progress Xuanzong had made started to unravel as the
members of Yang's family abused their positions and neglected their duties. He is
remembered as the “brilliant emperor” because of the success of his advisers, not for his
own successes. He paid little attention to governing, leaving power in the hands of his
court. His rule represents the peak of the Tang Dynasty and the beginning of its end.
SONG DYNASTY (960 - 1279 AD)
The Song Dynasty is dominated by the Confucian bureaucracy, considered the peak time
of Confucian influence. The rise of the school of Neo-Confucianism led by Zhu
Xi Despite the negative Confucian view of trade, commerce flourishes.
The Song Dynasty is also a period of transformation and invention. The Chinese produce
a precursor to moveable type using wooden blocks. The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng (990-
1051 AD) created the world's first known movable type system for printing. His printing
system was invented between 1041 and 1048 during the Song dynasty. Block printing
was an expensive and time-consuming process, for each carved block could only be used
for a specific page of a particular book; additionally, a single carving mistake could ruin
the whole block. The new innovative printing system created by Chinese porcelain made
books faster to print.
During Song times, new developments in rice cultivation — especially the introduction
of new strains of rice from what is now Central Vietnam, along with improved methods
of water control and irrigation — spectacularly increased rice yields and allowing the
population to grow. Rice was used primarily as food but was also used to brew the wine
consumed in homes and taverns. Rice was grown primarily south of the Yangzi River.
This area had many advantages over the north China plain, as the climate is warmer and
rainfall more plentiful. The mild temperatures of the south often allowed two crops to be
grown on the same plot of land — a summer and a winter crop. The many rivers and
streams of the region facilitated shipping, which reduced the cost of transportation and,
thus, made regional specialization economically more feasible. During the Song
period, the Yangzi River regions became the economic center of China. As grown
throughout East Asia before modern times, rice required much labor — to level the paddy
fields, clear irrigation ditches, plant and especially transplant the seedlings, as well as to
weed, harvest, thresh, and husk. Farmers developed many varieties of rice, including
drought resistant and early ripening varieties, as well as rice suited for special purposes
such as brewing. They also remade the landscape by terracing hilly land, so that rice
could be grown on it. Agricultural manuals helped to disseminate the best techniques for
rice cultivation.
Wang Anshi (d. 1086) was a Song Dynasty emperor. He was a reformer who cuts
government expenditures in half, loans money to peasant farmers, fixes prices of
commodities, and builds schools. His “New Policies” of 1069–76 sparked academic
controversy that continued for centuries. He created a fund for agricultural loans to
farmers to spare them the exorbitant demands of moneylenders; he also replaced corvée
labour with a hired-service system financed by a graduated tax levied on all families. He
enabled officials to purchase supplies at the cheapest price in the most convenient market.
He established a village militia system, reorganized the Hanlin Academy, and restructured
the civil service examinations. Wang’s reforms were unpopular, and he was forced to
resign in 1074. He returned to government in 1075, but with less political power. After
the emperor’s death an antireform clique came to power and dismantled Wang’s reforms
by the time of his death shortly afterward.
The traditional geographic entity of China is intact, but the Song Dynasty does not
control anything outside of these areas. The civilizations on the borders of China imitate
Chinese government administration but are not under Song control (including the
important trade route of the Silk Road).
Between 1100-1200, the Song Dynasty loses territory to nomadic civilizations from the
north. Two important cultural features emerged during this period. First, the Chinese
discover gunpowder – first discovered as a failed attempt at an elixir to give emperors
immortality. In 1044 while the Chinese have been using gunpowder, the scientists Zeng
Gongliang and Yang Weide write a paper, in which they record formulas for making even
more powerful powder to use. The military uses of gunpowder are not mastered
immediately, however.
Second, many aristocratic women undergo a torturous process called foot binding,
bending their feet out of shape. Foot binding shows that as aristocrats, such women have
no need to be on their feet for work purposes. Foot binding remains a practice until the
early 1900s.