PSYCH 350 Exam 1 Study Guide

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

Random assignment

The process of assigning participants to different groups in an experiment by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Correlational research

A type of non-experimental research method in which a researcher measures two variables and assesses the statistical relationship between them.

Experimental research

A method of research that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring their effects on dependent variables.

Framing of questions

The way a question is posed, which can significantly affect the responses it elicits.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment; it is affected by the independent variable.

Unscientific nature of conventional wisdom

The idea that commonly held beliefs may not be based on scientific evidence and can often be misleading.

Self-esteem

An individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth.

Spotlight effect

The phenomenon where individuals believe they are being noticed more than they actually are.

Schemas

Cognitive structures that help organize and interpret information.

Social comparison

The process of comparing oneself to others to evaluate one's own abilities and opinions.

Collectivistic cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the individual.

Individualistic cultures

Cultures that emphasize personal autonomy and individual achievement.

Self-efficacy

An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute positive events to one's own character but attribute negative events to external factors.

Self-handicapping

A strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly.

Planning fallacy

The tendency to underestimate the time, costs, and risks of future actions while overestimating the benefits.

Self-promotion

The act of highlighting one's own accomplishments to appear competent.

Self-verification

The process by which people seek confirmation of their self-concept.

Self-monitoring

The ability to regulate one's behavior to accommodate social situations.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment; when a person's expectations about another person lead them to act in ways that confirm those expectations.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making decisions.

Representative heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on the similarity of objects or events to make judgments.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic.

Counterfactual thinking

The mental process of imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to hold on to one's beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

Dispositional attribution

Attributing someone's behavior to their character or personality.

Misattribution

The process of incorrectly identifying the source of a memory or belief.

Situational attribution

Attributing someone's behavior to external factors or situational influences.

Fundamental attribution theory

The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior.

Spontaneous trait transference

The phenomenon where the way you describe others influences how they perceive you.

Cognitive dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values.

Self-perception theory

The theory that people develop attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused them.

Implicit association test

A measure used to assess implicit attitudes and beliefs that individuals may be unwilling or unable to report.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are not consciously accessible and can influence behavior unconsciously.

Implicit Processes

Cognitive processes that occur automatically and without conscious awareness.

Attitude

A settled way of thinking or feeling about something, typically reflected in a person's behavior.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Natural selection

The process through which species adapt to their environment as individuals with favorable traits survive and reproduce.

Culture

The social behavior and norms found in human societies.

Sex

The biological distinction between male and female organisms.

Gender

The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female.