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Critical Thinking
Systemic evaluation of formulation of beliefs, or statements, by rational standards.
Logic
Study of good reasoning, or inference, and the rules that govern it.
Statement
Assertion that something is or is not the case.
Argument
Group of statements in which some of them (premises) are intended to support another of them (conclusion).
Premises
In an argument, a statement, or reason, given in support of the conclusion.
Conclusion
In an argument, the statement that the premises are intended to support.
Inference
Process of reasoning from a premise(s) to a conclusion based on those premises.
Explanations
Statement(s) intended to tell why or how something is the case.
Indicator Words
Words that frequently accompany arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion is present.
Post-truth fog
Relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal beliefs.
Tribalism
Tendency for individuals to strongly identify with a group (“tribe”) and prioritize the interests and perspectives of that group, leads to bias and perception to be narrow to distorted.
Self Centered Thinking
Refers to accepting a claim solely on the grounds that it advances, or coincides with, our interests. Problem arises when you accept a claim solely because it furthers your interests.
Group Centered Thinking
Tendency for individuals to prioritize the opinions and desires of a group over their own independent judgment and critical analysis.
Peer Pressure
Group pressure to accept/reject a claim based solely on what one’s peers think or do.
Appeal to Popularity
Fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it.
Appeal to Common Practice
Fallacy of accepting or rejecting a claim based solely on what groups of people generally do or how they behave ( when the action or behavior is irrelevant to the truth of the claim).
Stereotyping
Drawing an unwarranted conclusion or generalization about an entire group of people.
Implicit Bias
Negative attitude toward a group of people that operates unintentionally or unconsciously.
Resisting Contrary Evidence
Tendency to ignore, dismiss, or rationalize away information that contradicts one’s existing beliefs or opinions. Can be psychologically comforting. Only ‘remedy’ is to make a conscious effort to look for opposing evidence.
Looking for Confirming Evidence
Tendency to favor information that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying evidence that contradicts them. When we evaluate claims, we should look for disconfirming as well as confirming evidence. To do so it requires a conscious effort to consider not only the information that supports what we want to believe but also the information that conflicts with it.
Preferring Available Evidence
Tendency to favor information that’s easily accessible (readily available) in one’s mind (read, heard, seen), rather than seeking out more comprehensive or objective evidence. If we base our judgment on evidence that’s merely psychologically available, we’ll frequently commit the error known as “hasty generalization”.
Motivated Reasoning
Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion, not to uncover the truth cognitive bias where people’s desires, preferences, or emotional biases inmueble how they process information and form conclusions, rather than objective evidence. ‘Be reasonably skeptical, be wary or credibility, give opposing views a chance.’
Homophily
Tendency to give more credence to a statement if it comes from our friends. Likely share similar beliefs, values, and perspectives.
Mere Exposure
Idea that just being exposed repeatedly to words or images (without registering them consciously) can induce a favorable or comfortable feeling towards them, whether or not there’s any good reason for doing so.
Illusion-of-Truth Effect
Phenomenon in which you come to believe that a false claim is actually true simply because it’s familiar (hearing falso information over and over again).
False Consensus Effect
Tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share our opinions, attitudes, and preferences (frequently overestimate how much others share their beliefs).
Dunning-Kruger Effect
Phenomenon of being ignorant of how ignorant we are. Individuals with limited knowledge and skill tend to overestimate their competence.
Worldview
Philosophy of life; a set of beliefs and theories that helps us make sense of a wide range of issues in life.
Subjective Relativism
Idea that truth depends on what someone believes.
Subjectivist Fallacy
Accepting the notion of subjective relativism or using it to try to support a claim.
Social Relativism
View that truth is relative to societies. Suggest that what’s considered true, right, or valid can vary depending on the specific group being examined.
Skepticism
View that we know much less than we think we do or nothing at all. Approaching claims and information with a questioning attitude, seeking evidence, and sound reasoning before accepting them as true.
Philosophical Skeptics
Those who embrace philosophical skepticism.
Enumerative Induction
Inductive argument pattern in which we reason from premises about individual members of a group to conclusions about the group as a whole.
Target Group
In enumerative induction, the whole collection of individuals under study.
Sample Members
In enumerative induction, the observed members of the target group.
Relevant Property
In enumerative induction, a property, or characteristic , that’s of interest in the target group.
Representative Sample
In enumerative induction, a sample that resembles the target group in all relevant ways.
Biased Sample
A sample that doesn’t properly represent the target group.
Random Sampling
Sample that’s selected randomly from a target group in such a way as to ensure that the sample is representative. In a simple random selection, every member of the target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
Self-Selecting Sample
Unscientific type of sample in which the members of the sample select themselves.
Margin of Error
Variation between the values derived from a sample and the true values of the whole target group.
Confidence Level
In statistical theory, the probability that the sample will accurately represent the target group within the margin of error.
Analogy
Comparison of 2 or more things alike in specific respects
Analogical Induction
Argument making use of analogy, reasoning that because 2 or more things are similar in several respects, they must be similar in some further respect.
Expert
Someone who’s more knowledgeable in a particular subject area or field than most others are.
Fallacious Appeal to Authority
Fallacy of relying on the opinion of someone deemed to be an expert who in fact is not an expert.
Impairment
If our perceptual powers are somehow hindered/impaired/impeded, we have a reason to doubt them. Our perception and memory are constructive, meaning that we perceive and remember is to some degree fabricated by our minds.
Expectation
We often perceive exactly what we expect to perceive regardless of whether there’s anything there to detect.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Mistaken belief that previous events can affect the probabilities in the random event at hand.
Hasty Generalization
Making assumption about a whole group based on a sample that’s inadequate (usually too small).
Example: My friend said her CT class is hard, I’m in one too and it’s hard. All CT classes must be hard.
Slippery Slope
Taking a first step will lead to subsequent chain of events that can’t be prevented.
Example: If we allow A, then B, C, D, and E will occur. So A will ultimately cause E to happen.
Straw Man
Someone misrepresents an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack, often by exaggerating, simplifying, or distorting claim.
Example: Schools should be more lenient with standardized testing. If we stop giving tests in school, we’re going to raise an ignorant generation that won’t be ready for the real world.
Ad Hominem
The speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making the argument than the substance of the argument itself.
Example: I’ll lower the unemployment rate by 2%. Don’t listen to him! He’s cheated on 3 different partners. He can’t be trusted.
False Dichotomy/Dilemma
Occurs when an argument presents only 2 options or sides when more possibilities exist.
Example: Save money or see the world. ; You’re either with us or against us.
Appeal to Emotion
Someone attempts to persuade by manipulating the emotions of the audience rather than providing logical evidence.
Example: I’ve had such a bad day I should get the money since it’ll make me feel better.
Equivocation
Occurs when a word or phrase with multiple meanings is used in an argument, but with a different meaning in different parts of an argument.
Example: Hot dogs are better than nothing. Nothing’s better than hamburgers. Therefore, hot dogs are better than hamburgers.
Bandwagon Appeal
Occurs when someone argues that a claim is true or valid simply because it’s popular or widely believed.
Example: Many people buy extended warranties, therefore it’s wise to buy them.
False Analogy
Occurs when an argument compares 2 things that aren’t sufficiently similar in the relevant respects to draw a logical conclusion.
Example: Apples, strawberries, and raspberries are all red. They’re also all fruits. Therefore all fruits are red.
Premise Indicator Words
Because, In view of the fact, Given that, Seeing that, As, Due to the fact that, Being that, Since, Assuming that, For the reason that, Inasmuch as, As indicated by, For, The reason being.
Conclusion Indicator Words
Therefore, Thus, Which implies that, Consequently, It follows that, We can conclude that, So, Hence, It must be that, As a result, Which means that, Ergo.