N2 GRAMMAR

〜際(に)

Meaning: At the time of / On the occasion of (formal). Example: 出発の際には、パスポートをお忘れなく。(When departing, don't forget your passport.)

〜に際して・〜にあたって

Meaning: On the occasion of / At the time of (formal). Example: 卒業にあたって、先生に感謝の気持ちを伝えた。(On the occasion of graduation, I expressed gratitude to my teacher.)

〜たとたん(に)

Meaning: The moment ~ / Just as ~ happened. Example: 家を出たとたんに、雨が降り出した。(The moment I left the house, it started raining.)

〜(か)と思うと・〜(か)と思ったら

Meaning: Just when I thought ~ / No sooner than ~. Example: 座ったかと思うと、もう立ち上がった。(Just when I thought he sat down, he stood up again.)

〜か〜ないかのうちに

Meaning: Barely ~ / No sooner had ~ than ~. Example: 横になるか横にならないかのうちに眠ってしまった。(I fell asleep almost as soon as I lay down.)

〜最中だ

Meaning: In the middle of ~ / Right in the middle of doing something. Example: 会議の最中だったので、電話に出られなかった。(I was in the middle of a meeting so I couldn't answer the phone.)

〜うちに

Meaning: While ~ / Before the situation changes. Example: 熱いうちに食べてください。(Please eat it while it's still hot.)

〜ばかりだ・〜一方だ

Meaning: Keep doing ~ / Getting more and more ~. A trend continues in one direction. Example: 物価は上がる一方だ。(Prices just keep rising.)

〜(よ)うとしている

Meaning: About to ~ / On the verge of doing something. Example: 電車がちょうど出ようとしている。(The train is just about to leave.)

〜つつある

Meaning: Be in the process of ~ / Gradually changing (formal/written). Example: 環境問題は悪化しつつある。(Environmental problems are gradually worsening.)

〜つつ

Meaning: While ~ / Simultaneous actions, often contradictory (formal). Example: テレビを見つつ、宿題をした。(I did homework while watching TV.)

〜てはじめて

Meaning: Only after ~ / Not until ~ does one realize something. Example: 失って初めて、その大切さがわかった。(Only after losing it did I understand its importance.)

〜上(で)

Meaning: After doing ~ / Having done ~ as preparation. Example: よく考えた上で、決断した。(I made the decision after thinking it over carefully.)

〜次第

Meaning: As soon as ~ (formal). Action B happens immediately after A. Example: 準備ができ次第、出発します。(We will depart as soon as preparations are complete.)

〜て以来・〜てこのかた

Meaning: Ever since ~ / From the time ~ until now. Example: 日本に来て以来、ずっと日本語を勉強している。(Ever since coming to Japan, I have been studying Japanese.)

〜てからでないと・〜てからでなければ

Meaning: Unless ~ first / B cannot happen until A is done. Example: 書類にサインしてからでないと、入れません。(You cannot enter unless you sign the document first.)

〜をはじめ(として)

Meaning: Starting with ~ / ~ and others like it. Representative example. Example: 東京をはじめ、大阪や名古屋でも大会が開かれた。(Tournaments were held in Tokyo and also in Osaka and Nagoya.)

〜からして

Meaning: Even ~ / Judging from ~. The whole is judged from one part. Example: 彼は話し方からして、外国人だとわかった。(Just from the way he speaks, you can tell he's a foreigner.)

〜にわたって

Meaning: Over a span of ~ / Throughout ~ (range of time or space). Example: 3日間にわたって会議が行われた。(The conference was held over a span of 3 days.)

〜を通じて・〜を通して

Meaning: Through ~ / Via ~ / Throughout ~. Example: 友人を通して、その情報を得た。(I got that information through a friend.)

〜限り

Meaning: As long as ~ / To the extent that ~. Example: 私が知る限り、彼は誠実な人だ。(As far as I know, he is an honest person.)

〜だけ

Meaning: Just ~ / Only ~ / As much as possible. Example: できるだけ早く来てください。(Please come as quickly as possible.)

〜に限り

Meaning: Only for ~ / Limited to ~. Special exception or restriction. Example: 本日に限り、全品半額です。(Today only, all items are half price.)

〜限り(は)

Meaning: As long as ~ / Unless ~. Indicates a condition or boundary. Example: 元気でいる限りは、働き続けたい。(As long as I'm healthy, I want to keep working.)

〜限りでは

Meaning: Within the limits of ~ / As far as ~ is concerned. Example: 私の知っている限りでは、そのような規則はない。(As far as I know, there's no such rule.)

〜に限って

Meaning: Of all things ~ / Especially in ~'s case (often ironic). Example: 大事な日に限って、遅刻してしまう。(Of all times, I end up being late on the most important day.)

〜に限らず

Meaning: Not limited to ~ / Not only ~. Example: 子どもに限らず、大人も楽しめるイベントだ。(It's an event not only children but adults can enjoy too.)

〜のみならず

Meaning: Not only ~ but also ~ (formal/written). Example: 彼は歌のみならず、演技も上手だ。(He is good not only at singing but also at acting.)

〜ばかりか

Meaning: Not only ~ but also ~ (adds emphasis or surprise). Example: 彼は遅刻したばかりか、謝りもしなかった。(Not only was he late, he didn't even apologize.)

〜はもとより

Meaning: Of course ~, but also ~ / Needless to say ~ (formal). Example: 日本語はもとより、英語も話せる。(Needless to say, she can speak Japanese, and English too.)

〜上(に)

Meaning: In addition to ~ / On top of ~. Adds a further fact. Example: 彼女は美しい上に、頭もいい。(On top of being beautiful, she's also smart.)

〜に関して

Meaning: Regarding ~ / Concerning ~ (formal). Example: 環境問題に関して、講演が行われた。(A lecture was held concerning environmental issues.)

〜をめぐって

Meaning: Over ~ / Around the issue of ~. Used for debates or conflicts. Example: その土地をめぐって、争いが起きた。(A dispute arose over that piece of land.)

〜にかけては

Meaning: When it comes to ~ / In terms of ~. Highlights someone's strength. Example: 料理にかけては、彼女の右に出る者はいない。(When it comes to cooking, no one can beat her.)

〜に対して

Meaning: Toward ~ / Against ~ / In contrast to ~. Example: 先生の意見に対して、反論した。(I argued against the teacher's opinion.)

〜にこたえて

Meaning: In response to ~ / Meeting the expectations of ~. Example: ファンの期待にこたえて、新曲を発表した。(In response to fans' expectations, they released a new song.)

〜をもとに(して)

Meaning: Based on ~ / Drawing from ~. Example: 実話をもとにして、映画が作られた。(The film was made based on a true story.)

〜に基づいて

Meaning: Based on ~ / In accordance with ~ (formal). Example: 法律に基づいて、処理が行われた。(The process was carried out in accordance with the law.)

〜に沿って

Meaning: Along ~ / In line with ~ / Following ~. Example: 計画に沿って、プロジェクトを進めた。(We advanced the project in line with the plan.)

〜のもとで・〜のもとに

Meaning: Under ~ / Under the guidance of ~. Example: 先生のもとで、技術を学んだ。(I learned the techniques under my teacher's guidance.)

〜向けだ

Meaning: Aimed at ~ / Intended for ~. Example: この本は初心者向けだ。(This book is aimed at beginners.)

〜につれて・〜にしたがって

Meaning: As ~ / In accordance with ~ (parallel change). Example: 年をとるにつれて、体力が落ちてくる。(As you get older, your physical strength declines.)

〜に伴って・〜とともに

Meaning: Along with ~ / As ~ progresses (things change together). Example: 経済成長に伴って、生活水準が上がった。(Along with economic growth, the standard of living rose.)

〜次第だ

Meaning: Depends on ~. The outcome is determined by something. Example: 成功するかどうかは、努力次第だ。(Whether you succeed or not depends on your effort.)

〜に応じて

Meaning: According to ~ / In response to ~ (adapting to conditions). Example: 状況に応じて、対応を変える必要がある。(It's necessary to change your response according to the situation.)

〜につけて

Meaning: Whenever ~ / Every time ~. A feeling triggered by something. Example: この歌を聞くにつけ、故郷を思い出す。(Whenever I hear this song, I'm reminded of my hometown.)

〜やら〜やら

Meaning: ~ and ~ and so on (listing multiple things, nuance of overwhelm). Example: 荷物やら書類やら、たくさん持ってきた。(I brought lots of things — luggage, documents, and more.)

〜というか〜というか

Meaning: How should I put it… ~ or maybe ~. Searching for the right words. Example: あの人は変というか、独特というか、とにかく面白い。(That person is strange, or maybe unique — anyway, interesting.)

〜にしても〜にしても・〜にしろ〜にしろ

Meaning: Whether ~ or ~, either way ~. The conclusion is the same in both cases. Example: 賛成にしろ反対にしろ、意見を言ってください。(Whether you agree or disagree, please state your opinion.)

〜といった

Meaning: Such as ~ / Like ~. Used to give examples. Example: 東京や大阪といった大都市に人口が集中している。(Population is concentrated in major cities such as Tokyo and Osaka.)