Psychology 210- Chapter 5-10

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Why do we experience hindsight bias?

Most people prefer order and predictability in their lives

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Why do we experience hindsight bias?

Most people prefer order and predictability in their lives

- Warning people in advance about hindsight bias does nto reduce it.

What is Cross Cultural Psychology?

A branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes.

Why might research findings from Americans or Europeans not be applicable elsewhere?

Because cultural differences can affect behavior and mental processes.

Individualistic Culture

A culture in which people believe that their primary responsibility is to themselves and not group needs.

Collectivistic Culture

a culture that places a high value on collaboration, teamwork, and group achievement

Who were the first psychologists?

Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

Who was Gustav Fechner?

early German psychologist credited with founding psychophysics

What is psychophysics?

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

father of experimental psychology who studied introspection.

What is introspection?

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes in the present moment.

How did introspection work?

1. Presentation of a stimulus

2.Instrospection of your own thoughts

3. Reporting back your own thoughts, emotions, and sensations

4. Conclusion after comparing responses

2. Inspection of your own thoughts

3.Reporting back your own thoughts, emotions, and sensations.

4. Conclusions after comparing responses.

What is structuralism?

The interpretation of the perception of the world through our senses and understanding our environment.

What is functionalism?

Focuses on why human behavior changes and how consciousness functions.

What are the barriers of introspection?

It is subject to biases and has limited applicability.

Behaviorist Approach

A theoretical perspective that focuses only on objective, observable reactions as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion.

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs

What is classical conditioning?

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and produce a new learned response.

Who was John B. Watson?

John Watson (1879 - 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism rejected the studying of consciousness. He was convinced that it could not be studied, and that past attempts to do so have only been hindering the advancement of psychological theories. He felt that introspection was faulty at best and awarded researchers nothing but more issues. He pushed for psychology to no longer be considered the science of the "mind". Instead, he stated that psychology should focus on the "behavior" of the individual, not their consciousness.

What did John B Watson do?

Applied the scientific method of classical conditioning to human psychology which he called behavioralism (little Albert)

What was the little Albert experiment?

Watson and Rayner taught a little boy to fear white rats by pairing their presence with a loud noise.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning where an individual's responses are controlled by their consequences reward or punishment.

Who is B.F. Skinner?

American psychologist who developed the operant conditioning model of learning; emphasized studying the relationship between environmental factors and observable actions, not mental processes, in trying to achieve a scientific explanation of behavior

Law of Effect

The principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences

Primary reinforcers

stimuli, such as food or warmth, that have reinforcement value without learning

Secondary reinforcers

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

What is the psychodynamic approach?

1. Our behavior and feelings are affected by unconscious motives.

2.Our behaviors and feelings as adults are rooted in childhood experiences.

3. Freud divides the personality into three parts, the id, the ego, and the superego. When they conflict, the result is psychological distress.

Who was Sigmund Freud and what theory was he associated with?

Austrian psychologist that created the psychodynamic approach.

What are the key takeaways of the psychodynamic approach?

1. Personality is shaped by our experiences in childhood.

2. Talk therapy is used

3. Mental disorders have their origins in psychological rather than physical factors.

What is the cognitive approach?

The term 'cognitive' has come to mean 'mental processes', so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behavior.

What does cognitive approach consist of?

- Evidence from brain activity as well as from behavior is obtained while individuals perform cognitive tasks under experimental conditions.

What is the humanistic approach?

emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny

What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs

3. Love and belonging,

4. Esteem

5. Self-actualization.

2. Safety and Security needs

3. Love and Belonging Needs

4. Self esteem

5. self actualization

What is social psychology?

the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another

What is a hypothesis?

Predictions concerning the effects of some factors on behavior based on a given theory

hypothesis vs theory.

theory is a well-tested observation and hypothesis is what you think will happen

What are the basic steps of scientific method?

1. Observation

2. Hypothesis

3. Experiment

-If it is true, you find counter evidence or more evidence.

-If it is not true, create a new hypothesis.

4. Conclusion

What are confounding variables?

Unmeasured variables that affect both the independent (manipulated, experimental) variable & dependent (outcome) variables

How can we avoid confounding variables?

-Turn them into controlled variables

What is a representative sample?

a sample that resembles the population

What is quota sampling?

An interviewer or researcher selects a sample that reflects the characteristics of the whole population

What is opportunity sampling?

Taking a sample of people who are available at the time that the study is being carried out and fit the criteria of the research.

What is a population?

A large collection of individuals (e.g., female musicians) from whom the sample of the study is drawn.

What is a case study?

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth. While it cannot be used for the gen pop, it can provide important information for future research.

What is descriptive research?

Used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured.

What is correlation research?

Relationship between two variables. Can be used to make predictions about the likelihood of two variables occuring together.

What is experimental research?

gathering primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors, and checking for differences in group responses.

What are methods of collecting data?

Observation and survey/interviews

What is an independent variable?

variable that is manipulated

What is a dependent variable?

variable that is measured

What are the ethical guidelines for experiments?

1. Respect- Individual, cultural, and role differences should be respected. Researchers must obtain voluntary informed consent from participants and provided in detail information about the experiment.

2. Competence- Researchers should recognize the limits of their knowledge.

3. Responsibility- Researchers should tell participants they can withdraw at any time.

4. Integrity- Researchers should strive to be honest, fair, and accurate.

What does the central nervous system contain?

brain and spinal cord

What does the peripheral nervous system contain?

All the nerve cells in the body not located within the central nervous system. It is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

What is the somatic nervous system?

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles and limbs.

What is the autonomic nervous system?

the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

What does the forebrain do?

Located towards the top and the front of the brain, consists of four parts. The forebrain processes sensory information, helps with reasoning and problem solving, and regulates autonomic, endocrine, and motor functions.

What does the midbrain do?

Processes sight, sound, and associated reflexes

Maintains consciousness

What does the hindbrain do?

helps to regulate autonomic functions, relay sensory information, coordinate movement, and maintain balance and equilibrium

What does the cerebral cortex do?

This is the outer wrinkly bit

-thought, perception, language, attention..

It's responsible for consciousness, memory, intelligence and language

What two responses does stress involve?

Shock response and countershock response.

What is the SAM system and what does it do?

-The first part of the stress response

-Sympathetic arousal stimulates adrenal medulla (kidney) to release hormones, which produces the changes (increased heart rate etc)

--Catecholamines (fight or flight hormones- norepinephrine & epinephrine)

What is the HPA axis? What does it do?

Countershock response involving the HPA axis is designed to minimize damage during stress.

-Cortisol is released.

-High cortisol for a long time can suppress the immune system.

What is technostress?

created because of our dependence on technology and constant state of connection

What is burnout syndrome?

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, low sense of personal accomplishment